In this video, I'll describe the first way
we discovered for getting Sigmoid Belief
Nets to learn efficiently.
It's called the wake-sleep algorithm and
it should not be confused with Boltzmann
machines.
They have two phases, a positive and a
negative phase, that could plausibly be
related to wake and sleep.
But the wake-sleep algorithm is a very
different kind of learning, mainly because
it's for directed graphical models like
Sigmoid Belief Nets, rather than for
undirected graphical models
like Boltzmann machines.
The ideas behind the wake-sleep algorithm
led to a whole new area of machine
learning called variational learning,
which didn't take off until the late
1990s,
despite early examples like the wake-sleep
algorithm, and is now one of the main ways
of learning complicated graphical models
in machine learning.
The basic idea behind these variational
methods sounds crazy.
The idea is that since it's hard to
compute the correct posterior distribution,
we'll compute some cheap
approximation to it.
And then, we'll do maximum likelihood
learning anyway.
That is, we'll apply the learning rule
that would be correct,
if we'd got a sample from the true posterior,
and hope that it works, even though we haven't.
Now, you could reasonably expect this to
be a disaster,
but actually the learning comes to your rescue.
So, if you look at what's driving the weights during the learning,
when you use an approximate posterior,
there are actually two terms driving the
weights.
One term is driving them to get a better
model of the data.
That is, to make the Sigmoid Belief Net
more likely to generate the observed data
in the training center.
But there's another term that's added to that,
that's actually driving the weights
towards sets of weights for which the
approximate posterior it's using is a good fit
to the real posterior.
It does this by manipulating the real
posterior to try to make it fit the
approximate posterior.
It's because of this effect, the
variational learning of these models works
quite nicely.
Back in the mid 90s,' when we first came
up with it, we thought this was an
interesting new theory of how the brain
might learn.
That idea has been taken up since by Karl
Friston, who strongly believes this is
what's going on in real neural learning.
So, we're now going to look in more detail
at how we can use an approximation to the
posterior distribution for learning.
To summarize, it's hard to learn
complicated models like Sigmoid Belief
Nets because it's hard to get samples from
the true posterior distribution over
hidden configurations, when given a data vector.
And it's hard even to get a sample from that posterior.
That is, it's hard to get an unbiased sample.
So, the crazy idea is that we're going to
use samples from some other distribution
and hope that the learning will still work.
And as we'll see, that turns out to be true for Sigmoid Belief Nets.
So, the distribution that we're going to
use is a distribution that ignores
explaining away.
We're going to assume (wrongly) that the
posterior over hidden configurations
factorizes into a product of
distributions for each separate hidden unit.
In other words, we're going to assume that
given the data, the units in each hidden
layer are independent of one another,
as they are in a Restricted Boltzmann
machine.
But in a Restricted Boltzmann machine,
this is correct.
Whereas, in a Sigmoid Belief Net, it's
wrong.
So, let's quickly look at what a factorial
distribution is.
In a factorial distribution, the
probability of a whole vector is just the
product of the probabilities of its
individual terms.
So, suppose we have three hidden units in
the layer and they have probabilities of
being wrong of 0.3, 0.6, and 0.8. If we
want to compute the probability of the
hidden layer having the state (1, 0, 1),
We compute that by multiplying 0.3
by (1 - 0.6), by 0.8.
So, the probability of a configuration of
the hidden layer is just the product of
the individual probabilities.
That's why it's called factorial.
In general, the distribution of binary
vectors of length n will have two to the n
degrees of freedom.
Actually, it's only two to the n minus one
because the probabilities must add to one.
A factorial distribution, by contrast,
only has n degrees of freedom.
It's a much simpler beast.
So now, I'm going to describe the
wake-sleep algorithm that makes use of the
idea of using the wrong distribution.
And in this algorithm, we have a neural
net that has two different sets of weights.
It's really a generative model and so, the
weights shown in green for generative are
the weights of the model.
Those are the weights that define the
probability distribution over data vectors.
We've got some extra weights.
The weights shown in red, for recognition weights,
and these are weights that are used for
approximately getting the posterior
distribution.
That is, we're going to use these weights
to get a factorial distribution at each
hidden layer that approximates the
posterior, but not very well.
So, in this algorithm, there's a wake
phase.
In the wake phase, you put data in at the
visible layer, the bottom, and you do a
forward pass through the network using the
recognition weights.
And in each hidden layer, you make a
stochastic binary decision for each hidden
unit independently, about whether it
should be on or off.
So, the forward pass gets us stochastic
binary states for all of the hidden units.
Then, once we have those stochastic binary
states, we treat that as though it was a
sample from the true posterior
distribution given the data and we do
maximum likelihood learning.
But what we're doing maximum likelihood
learning for is not the recognition
weights that we just used to get the
approximate sample.
It's the generative weights that define our models.
So, you drive the system in the forward
pass with the recognition weights, but you
learn the generative weights.
In the sleep phase, you do the opposite.
You drive the system with the generative weights.
That is, you start with a random vector of
the top hidden layer.
You generate the binary states of those
hidden units from their prior in which
they're independent.
And then, you go down through the system,
generating state for each layer at a time.
And here you're using the generative model
correctly.
That's how the generative model says you
want to generate data.
And so, you can generate an unbiased
sample from the model.
Having used the generative weights to
generate an unbiased sample, you then say,
let's see if we can recover the hidden
states from the data.
Well, let's see if we can recover the
hidden states that layer h2 from the
hidden states at layer h1.
So, you train recognition weights, to try
and recover the hidden states that
actually generated the states in the layer below.
So, it's just the opposite of the weight phase.
We're now using the generative weights to
drive the system and we're learning the
recognition weights.
It turns out that if you start with random
weights and you alternate between wake
phases and sleep phases it learns a pretty
good model.
There are flaws in this algorithm.
The first flaw is a rather minor one
which is, the recognition weights are
learning to invert the generative model.
But at the beginning of learning, they're
learning to invert the generative model in
parts of the space where there isn't any
data.
Because when you generate from the model,
you're generating stuff that looks very
different from the real data,
because the weights aren't any good.
That's a waste, but it's not a big
problem.
The serious problem with this algorithm is
that the recognition weights not only
don't follow the gradient of the log
probability of the data,
They don't even follow the gradient of the
variational bound on this probability.
And because they're not following the
right gradient, we get incorrect mode averaging,
which I'll explain in the next slide.
A final problem is that we know that the
true posterior over the top hidden layer
is bound to be far from independent
because of explaining away effects.
And yet, we're forced to approximate it
with a distribution that assumes
independence.
This independence approximation might not
be so bad for intermediate hidden layers,
because if we're lucky, the explaining
away effects that come from below will be
partially canceled out by prior effects
that come from above.
You'll see that in much more detail later.
Despite all these problems, Karl Friston
thinks this is how the brain works.
When we initially came up with the
algorithm, we thought it was an
interesting new theory of the brain.
I currently believe that it's got too many
problems to be how the brain works and
that we'll find better algorithms.
So now let me explain mode averaging, using the little model
with the earthquake and the truck that we saw before.
Suppose we run the sleep phase, and we generate data from this model.
Most of the time, those top two units would be off
because they are very unlikely to turn on under their prior,
and, because they are off, the visible unit will be firmly off, because its bias is -20.
Just occassionally, one time in about e to the -10, one of the two top units will turn on
and it will be equally often the left one or the right one.
When that unit turns on, there's a probability of a half
that the visible unit will turn on.
So, if you think about the occassions on which the visible unit turns on,
half those occassions have the left-hand hidden unit on,
the other half of those occassions have the right-hand hidden unit on
and almost none of those occassions have neither or both units on.
So now think what the learning would do for the recognition weights.
Half the time we'll have a 1 on the visible layer,
the leftmost unit will be on at the top,
so we'll actually learn to predict that that's on with a probability of 0.5, and the same for the right unit.
So the recognition units will learn to produce a factorial distribution
over the hidden layer, of (0.5, 0.5)
and that factorial distribution puts a quarter of its mass on the configuration (1,1)
and another quarter of its mass on the configuration (0,0)
and both of those are extremely unlikely configurations given that the visible unit was on.
It would have been better just to pick one mode,
that is, it would have been better for the visible unit just to go for truck, or just to go for earthquake.
That's the best recognition model you can have,
that's the best recognition model you can have if you're forced to have a factorial model.
So even though the hidden configurations we're dealing with
are best represented as the corners of a square
actually show it as if it's a one-dimensional continuous value,
and the true posterior is bimodal. It's focused on (1,0) or (0,1), that's shown in black.
The approximation window, if you use the sleep phase of the wake-sleep algorithm,
is the red curve, which gives all four states of the hidden units equal probability
and the best solution would be to pick one of these states, and give it all the probability mass.
That's the best solution, because in variational learning we're manipulating the true posterior
to make it fit the approximation we're using.
Normally, in learning we'll manipulate an approximation to fit the true thing, but here it's backwards.