[MUSIC] Up until now, we've been 
considering the functions that you can 
get by starting with variables and 
numbers, and combining them using sums, 
products, quotients, and differences. 
So we can write down, you know, functions 
like f(x)=x2+x/(x+1^)^10+x, all of this, 
-1/x. 
But there's more things in heaven and 
earth that are dreamt of in your rational 
functions. 
For instance, can you imagine a function 
f, which is its own derivative? I'm 
looking for a functions, that if I 
differentiate it, I get back itself. 
Now, if you're thinking cleverly, you 
might be able to cook up such a function 
very quickly. 
What if f is just the zero function? Or 
if I differentiate the zero function, 
differentiate a constant function, that's 
zero. 
So this would be an example of function 
in its own deriviative. 
But, that's not a very exciting example. 
[SOUND] So let's try to think of a 
nonzero function, which is its own 
derivative. 
How might we try to find such a function? 
So to make this concrete, I'm looking for 
a function f, so if I differentiate it, I 
get itself and just make sure that it's 
not the zero function. Let's have this 
function output one if I plug in zero. 
Now, how could I rig this function to 
have the correct derivative at zero? 
If the derivative of this function 
itself, the derivative of this function 
at zero should also be one. 
Can you think of a function whose value 
at zero is one and whose derivative at 
zero is one? 
Yes. 
Here is a function, f(x)=1+x. 
This function's value with zero is one, 
and this function's derivative at zero is 
also one. 
But if the derivative of f is f, then the 
derivative of the derivative of f is also 
the derivative of f, which is also f. 
So, the second derivative must be f as 
well. 
So, if this function is its own 
derivative, the second derivative of f 
would also be equal to f. 
Now, specifically, at the point zero, 
that means the second derivative of the 
function at the point zero would be the 
function's value with zero which should 
be equal to one. 
is this function's second derivative at 
zero equal to one? 
No. 
If I differentiate this function twice, I 
just get the zero function, 
but I can fix this at least to the point 
zero. If I add on x^/2, 
now, this function's derivative at zero 
is one and this function's second 
derivative at zero is one. 
Since f is its own derivative, the third 
derivative of f must also be f. 
No worries. 
If the thid derivative of f is also equal 
to f, which is a consequence of the 
derivative of f being equal to f. 
That means the third derivative of f at 
zero is equal to one, but this thing's 
third derivative is just zero. 
But if I add on x^3/6, now, if I take the 
third derivative of this function and 
plug in zero, I get out one. 
The fourth derivative of f must also be 
f. 
Okay, yeah. I gotta deal with the fourth 
derivative. 
I'm out of space here, but no worries, 
I'll just get more paper. 
Here, I've written down a function whose 
value at zero is one, whose derivative at 
zero is one, whose second derivative at 
zero is one, whose third derivative at 
zero is one, whose fourth derivative at 
zero is one. 
And you can see, this is sort of building 
me closer and closer to a function which 
is its own derivative. 
If I try to differentiate this function, 
what do I get? Well, the derivative of 
one is zero, but the derivative of x is 
one, and the derivative of x^2/2 is x, 
and the derivative of x^3/6, well, that's 
x^2/2, and the derivative of x^4/24, 
well, that's x^3/6. 
And yeah, 
I mean, this function isn't its own 
derivative, 
but things are looking better and better. 
But the fifth derivative of f must also 
be equal to f. 
Okay, yeah. 
The fifth derivative. 
I'll just add on another term, 
x^5/120. 
And if you check, take the fifth 
derivative now of this function, 
its value at zero is one. 
I've written down a function, 
so that if I take its fifth derivative at 
zero, 
I get one. 
The sixth derivative of f must be equal 
to f. 
The sixth derivative I am out of room, 
but here we, go. 
Here is a polynomial whose value first, 
second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth 
derivative at the point zero are all one. 
And you can see how this is edging us a 
little bit closer still to a function 
which is its own derivative, 
because if I differentiate this function, 
yeah, the one goes away, but the x gives 
me the one back, and the x^2/2, when I 
differentiate that, gives me the x. 
X^3/6, when I differentiate that, gives 
me x^2/2. 
X^4/24, when I differentiate that gives 
me x^3/6. 
x^5/120, when I differentiate that, gives 
me x^4/24. X^6/720, when I differentiate 
that, I've got x^5/120. And now, of 
course, these aren't the same, but I'm 
doing better. 
The seventh derivative must be equal to 
f. 
To get the seventh derivative at zero to 
be correct, I'll add on x^7/5040. 
The eighth derivative, I'll add on 
x^8/40,320. 
The ninth derivative, I'll add on 
x^9/362,880. 
Okay, okay. 
This is, isn't working out. 
We're not really succeeding in writing 
down a function which is its own 
derivative. 
Let's introduce a new friend, the number 
e to help us. 
Here is how we're going to get to the 
number e. 
This limit, 
the limit of 2^h-1/h as h approaches zero 
is about 0.69, a little bit more. 
On the other hand, this limit, 
the limit of three to the h minus one 
over h as h approaches zero is a little 
bit more than one, 
it's about 1.099. 
If you think of this as a function that 
depends not on two or three, you could 
define a function g(x), right? 
The limit as h approaches zero of x to 
the h minus one over h. In that case, 
this first statement, the statement about 
the limit of two to the h minus one over 
h, that's really saying that g(2) is a 
bit less than one. 
And, this statement over here, and if you 
think of this as a function g, this 
statement is really saying that g(3) is a 
bit more than 1. 
Now, if you're also willing to concede 
that this function g is continuous, which 
is a huge assumption to make, 
but let's suppose that's the case. 
If that's the case, I've got a continuous 
function, let's say, and if I plug in 
two, I get a value that's a little bit 
less than one, 
and if I plug in three, I get a value 
that's a little bit more than one. 
Well, by the intermediate value theorem, 
that would tell me there must be some 
input so that the output is exactly one. 
I'm going to call that input e. 
In other words, e is the number, so that 
the limit of e^h-1/h as h approaches zero 
is equal to one, 
and this number is about 2.7183 blah, 
blah, blah. 
Now lets consider the function f(x)=e^x. 
So let's think about this function 
f(x)=e^x. 
Now, what's the derivative of this 
function? Well, from the definition, 
that's the limit as h approaches zero of 
f of x plus h minus f of x over h. 
Now, in this case f is just e^x, 
so this is the limit as h approaches zero 
of e to the x plus h minus e to the x 
over h. 
And this is e to the x plus h minus e to 
the x over h, 
so I can write this as e to the x times e 
to the h. 
This is the limit then as h goes to zero 
of e to the x, e to the h minus e to the 
x over h, 
Now I've got a common factor of e to the 
x. 
So I'll pull out that common factor and 
I've got the limit as h approaches zero 
of e to the x times e to the h minus one 
over h. 
Now, as far as h is concerned, e to the x 
is a constant, 
and this is the limit of a constant times 
something, 
so I can pull that constant out. 
This is e to the x time the limit as h 
goes to zero of e to the h minus one over 
h. 
But I picked the number e precisely, so 
that this limit was eqal to one. 
And consequently, this is e to the x 
times one, this is just e to the x. 
Look, 
I've got a function whose derivative is 
the same function. 
We've done it. 
We've found a function which is its own 
derivative. 
The derivative of e^x is e^x. 
E^x is honestly different from this 
polynomials and rational functions. 
We couldn't have produced that number e 
without using a limit. 
E^x is the function that only calculus 
could provide us with.