THE EMPIRE OF THE ABBASIDS

The Abbasid Empire at its height in 809.

...all the treasures of the world are gathered there [Baghdad], and all the
blessings of the universe concentrated there. Besides, it is the capital of the
Abbasids, the center of their empire...
Arab geographer al-Ya'qubi (died 897 B.C.)

What makes a ruler great?

What about city? How do you define "great"?

To be sure, there are many answers to these questions. What are yours?

Why not take a notebook and write each question at the top of a page. Below,
list your responses. As you read the articles in the issue, jot down passages
that you feel support your answers. Share these passages with others who have
read the issue as well.

Now, let's travel back some 1,200 years to the reign of 'Abdallah al-Ma'mun and
his thriving capital city of Baghdad on the Tigris River.

Time Line A.D.
632 The Prophet Muhammad dies.

750 The Abbasid dynasty begins.

786 Harun al-Rashid becomes caliph.

809 Harun al-Rashid dies.

811 Civil war breaks out between al-Rashid's sons,
al-Amin and al-Ma'mun.

813 Al-Ma'mun becomes caliph.

833 Al-Ma'mun dies.

1258 The Abbasid dynasty ends with the fall of Baghdad to
Mongol invaders.



THE ROAD TO POWER

The events of September 15, 786, permanently altered the future of the Islamic
empire. That night, the reigning caliph was killed, a new caliph assumed the
throne, and a future caliph was born. The infant's right to the throne, however,
was not guaranteed at birth. Rather, he would find the road to power littered
with corpses. Most of these were the result of a bloody civil war that pitted
two nephews of the dead caliph against each other.

One nephew, 'Abdallah, was the infant born in 786. The other was his brother,
Muhammad. Their father, Harun al-Rashid, had become the fifth caliph of the
Abbasid dynasty. 'Abdallah's mother was not an aristocrat, but a Persian slave
named Marajil, who was the caliph's concubine. Muhammad, on the other hand, had
a pure Abbasid bloodline, and Harun al-Rashid had named him heir to the
caliphate at age five. Still, there was no clear plan of succession. During a
caliph's reign, several sons could emerge as potential heirs. Each found
supporters, and contests for power were common, although not all were as bloody
as the struggle between 'Abdallah and Muhammad would be.

In an attempt to avoid a civil war after his death, al-Rashid had carved out
areas of influence for his two sons. In 802, the caliph took his sons to Mecca,
where they signed a succession agreement. According to this document, Muhammad
would become caliph upon his father's death, and 'Abdallah was made his
brother's heir. 'Abdallah was also given complete control over Khurasan, a
wealthy eastern province. In return, he promised to help and advise his brother.
These documents were witnessed, signed, and placed in the Ka'ba at Mecca. Still,
in spite of these agreements, in 811, just two years after al-Rashid's death,
civil war broke out between the brothers.

Officially, Muhammad was the ruling caliph and occupied his father's palace in
Baghdad. Upon his accession to the throne, he had taken the title of al-Amin,
while his brother, as heir apparent, had the title al-Ma'mun. 'Abdallah,
meanwhile, had made Marw, the capital of Khurasan, his city. Both brothers were
encouraged and supported by militant advisors who had their own political goals.
The two sides did make several attempts to negotiate and settle their
differences, but without definite results. In 811, al-Amin named his son as
successor to the caliphate, thereby eliminating 'Abdallah as his heir. The
decision resulted in a complete break between the brothers. On March 15, 811,
al-Amin's army of 40,000 men marched on Khurasan. The caliph was so confident of
victory that he ordered his troops to carry silver chains with which to shackle
'Abdallah.

'Abdallah's forces, which numbered only 4,000, were under the command of General
Tahir. Due to poor leadership, al-Amin's troops were routed, and Tahir began the
march to Baghdad. Al-Amin was fishing when he received the news of his army's
disastrous defeat. He replied to the messenger, "Go away! ... I have [caught]
nothing yet!" This lack of leadership ultimately contributed to his downfall.

Al-Ma'mun's troops arrived in Baghdad in the summer of 812 and lay siege to the
city. The rag-tag band of citizens who defended the city were referred to as
"naked ones," because they had no metal armor. Rather, they wore only wool
clothing and palm leaf helmets. As the siege continued, food became scarce, and
the army plundered private homes for supplies and money.

Finally, al-Amin agreed to surrender. On the night of September 25, 813, he
boarded a small boat on the river where al-Ma'mun's advisor waited to accept his
surrender. As soon as the boat set sail, General Tahir's men capsized it. The
caliph swam to shore and was picked up by Tahir's men and taken to a house. A
witness later reported what happened. "There was a thud from which the floor
almost shook, and behold, Tahir's men had entered the house ... [al-Amin] tried
to hold them off with a pillow ... they threw him to the ground. Then they
rushed at him and cut off his head."

General Tahir then sent the caliph's severed head to 'Abdallah in Marw. One
account says that, when the head of his brother was presented to him on a
shield, 'Abdallah threw himself to the ground in prayer. Another historical
source claims that, when an official wept about al-Amin's murder, 'Abdallah
declared, "What is past is past. Use your ingenuity to find an excuse for it."

With his brother dead, 'Abdallah assumed the caliphate. He ruled from Khurasan,
but grew angry as reports reached him that Baghdad remained embroiled in
struggles between competing factions.

In December of 817, he headed west to bring peace to Baghdad. He entered the
ancient city at sunrise on August 10, 819. Within a short period of time, he
brought the long civil war to an end. Yet, the prestige of the position of
caliph had been weakened, and the empire state had suffered much damage from
within. The responsibility of repairing it would fall on 'Abdallah al-Ma'mun,
the man whom fate had chosen as caliph to reign supreme over the Islamic empire.

Concubine is a term used to refer to a woman who lives with a man. in some
cultures, a concubine holds a legally recognized position in the man's
household, but one that is considered less than that of the man's wife.

Muslims believe that the Ka'ba is the first house of God on earth, and that the
Prophet Abraham and his son Ismail (the biblical Ishmael) built the foundation
of the present Ka'ba more than 4,000 years ago as a site for pilgrimage.

Mawr is also spelled Merv.



CALIPHS AND CALIPHATES

*
In the view of most Muslims, when the Prophet Muhammad died in 632, he left no
successor to lead his growing Muslim community. The elders in the community met
and named Muhammad's father-in-law, Abu Bakr, the first caliph or khalifah
("successor"). As caliph, Abu Bakr became the leader of Islam and was
responsible for upholding the Islamic faith. The English later Anglicized the
Arabic form to "caliph" and used the term "caliphate" to refer to the Muslim
lands ruled by a caliph.



NONE WISER THAN HE

The dynasties: The Umayyads and the Abbasids

Uthman, the third caliph (successor of the Prophet Muhammad), was a member of
the Umayyad family. A weak leader, his policies angered many of his subjects,
and he was killed in 656.

Ali, a cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, succeeded Uthman as the fourth caliph.
The Umayyad family's call for revenge for Uthman's death led to a civil war, or
fitnah. Mu'awiyah, son of the head of the Umayyad family and the governor of
Syria, challenged Ali's right to be caliph. When Ali agreed to arbitration, many
of his supporters turned against him. In 661, Ali was assassinated.

Mu'awiyah then proclaimed himself the caliph, and became the first caliph of the
Umayyad dynasty. He ruled until his death in 680. Under Mu'awiyah and his
successors, the Umayyads expanded their borders. They went west across North
Africa and into Spain and France. They also went east, reaching as far as India
and the Indus River.

Another civil war broke out in 749, and led to the fall of the Umayyad dynasty.
The new caliph was al-Saffah, the first of the Abbasids. The Abbasids were
descendants of Muhammad's uncle al-Abbas -- hence the name Abbasid. The rulers
of this dynasty proclaimed a new order of equality and brotherhood. By the time
Harun al-Rashid, al-Ma'mun's father, became caliph in 786, the region had
enjoyed a generation of peace.

"In the year 198, the war between the two sons of Harun al-Rashid, Muhammad
[al-Amin] and 'Abdallah [al-Ma'mun], came to an end," the historian al-Tabari
wrote, "and the people in the eastern lands, in Iraq and the Hijaz, came
together and gave their obedience to 'Abdallah al-Ma'mun."

Peace, however, did not spread throughout the empire. When al-Ma'mun decided to
rule from the city of Marw in Persia, the people of Iraq felt that he was
abandoning his Arab heritage and embracing his mother's Persian ancestry. They
saw the move as reducing Iraq to little more than a province ruled by a
governor. As a result, the Iraqis revolted and forced the governor of Baghdad to
leave the area.

Al-Ma'mun's presence in Persia upset others as well. In the Hijaz, people
rioted. Throughout Arabia, the Alids (Muslims who consider Muhammad's son-in-law
Ali his rightful successor) revolted against the Abbasids.

In an effort to calm the Alids and heal the discord in Islam, al-Ma'mun called
their imam (Muslim religious leader) to Marw. Al-Tabari reported that al-Ma'mun,
finding no one "more excellent, more pious, or more learned" than the Alid imam
Ali al-Rida, proclaimed him his successor. Al-Ma'mun believed that his actions
would unite the Alids and the Abbasids as descendants of Muhammad. Instead, many
thought al-Ma'mun's order meant that the Alids, rather than the Abbasids, would
control the caliphate after al-Ma'mun died.

When the citizens of Baghdad heard that al-Ma'mun had chosen al-Rida as his
successor, they named Ibrahim b. al-Mahdi their caliph and cut themselves off
from the Persian section of the empire. Upon learning the reasons for his
empire's turmoil, al-Ma'mun decided to return to Baghdad with Ali al-Rida. On
the way, al-Rida "ate an inordinate quantity of grapes and died suddenly."

As the news of al-Ma'mun's impending arrival and al-Rida's death reached
Baghdad, the people there reconsidered their actions and turned away from the
caliph they had chosen in order to welcome al-Ma'mun. Ibrahim b. al-Mahdi,
meanwhile, decided to leave Baghdad. Soon after, he "was arrested, veiled, and
dressed like a woman." Although al-Mahdi feared for his life, "al-Ma'mun showed
his favor toward Ibrahim, [and] released him" unharmed.

This leniency and pardon of political opponents and rebels was typical of
al-Ma'mun. His rule was quite free of the torture and revenge that had marked
earlier reigns. It was even reported that he enjoyed forgiveness.

Although al-Ma'mun had calmed Baghdad, other areas presented problems. The
Abbasid empire stretched to India and China in the east and included Egypt,
Arabia, Mesopotamia, Persia, and Syria. Spain, although Muslim, was controlled
by the independent Umayyad family. The Aghlabids, another family of rulers,
recognized the supremacy of the Abbasids, but governed North Africa almost as an
independent dynasty.

As for the outlying provinces, many had grown more independent during the long
years of turmoil and unrest. With the collapse of the central government during
the civil war, local leaders in Egypt, Syria, and Palestine grew more powerful.
When regional conflicts escalated into wars, al-Ma'mun lacked the large, loyal
army necessary to restore control. As a result, he preferred to negotiate a
settlement rather than use force. Unlike his Abbasid predecessors, Al-Ma'mun
chose not to raise an army and tax the provinces to pay for it. Instead, in the
case of his more remote provinces, he turned to his governors. These governors
agreed to rule his area, provide whatever military force was needed, and send
money as tribute to Baghdad. Although the power of the central government
decreased as the provinces grew more independent, the lands that formed the
empire remained strongly Muslim.

Some 650 years after al-Ma'mun's death, the Egyptian writer al-Suyuti wrote in
his annals that al-Ma'mun "was the most distinguished of the house of Abbas for
his prudence, his determination, his mercy and judgment, his wisdom and
awe-inspiring respect, his fearlessness, majesty and liberality. ... Of the
House of Abbas none wiser than he ever ruled the Caliphate."

Arbitration refers to the refers to the process whereby a neutral third person
or group solves a disagreement between two people or groups, who are obligated
to abide by the decision.

The year 198 in the Islamic calendar corresponds to the period between September
1, 813, and August 21, 814, in the Gregorian calendar -- the calendar most
commonly used internationally today.

Al-Tabari was a near contemporary of al-Ma'mun. He was born in 839, just six
years after al-Ma'mun's death.

The Hijaz is a region in western Saudi Arabia (formerly known as Arabia). The
city of Mecca is located in the Hijaz.



BY LAND AND BY AIR: ALL ROADS LED TO BAGHDAD'S FOUR GATES

Al-Ma'mun used the postal system that had been organized during the previous
dynasty, the Umayyad Dynasty. He did so because he knew good government depended
on good communications between Baghdad and the major cities of his huge empire.

Known as al-barid in Arabic, the distribution of mail followed a detailed set of
rules. The postmaster (Sahib al-barid) in Baghdad was charged with overseeing
the imperial mail service. He supervised hundreds of branch offices in cities
and along the extensive road network. Although the postal system was established
to serve government interests, individuals could pay to use the service for
private correspondence. Mail had to be registered and recorded at the post
office and the person receiving the mail paid for its delivery.

Branch offices were located either in their own complexes or inside
caravansaries. A typical post office included living quarters, a tower, a
mosque, cisterns for water storage, a stable, and toilets -- all built around a
courtyard.

Horse cavalrymen and camel-mounted soldiers carried mail in relays around the
clock. Instead of the traditional black scarves that represented Abbasid rule,
al-Ma'mun ordered riders to wear green silk scarves. He later reversed this
command and had all riders return to black scarves.

These mounted couriers rode horses and mules while in Persian territory and
camels in Syria and Arabia. The work was hard. The "postmen" had to ride at top
speed along dusty roads from one relay station to the next with only brief stops
for a handful of dates or a drink of sweetened tea with the herb cardamom.

The Abbasids had air mail as well. Trained pigeons flew from one post office to
another carrying correspondence. Pigeon post could reach remote locations too
difficult for riders on horseback.

Light signals provided the fastest communication. The army was always on the
lookout for attacks by sea or along the borders. To send an alert, soldiers sent
coded fire or smoke messages between post office towers or forts (ribat).

The Baghdad postal headquarters provided itineraries showing post office
locations and distances between them.

Travelers, merchants, and pilgrims consulted the itineraries for routes and
stopping places. These early guidebooks contained valuable information that was
later used in geographical research and mapping.

The postmaster in Baghdad also headed an espionage (spy) service. His full title
was Postmaster and Controller of Intelligence. Branch postmasters reported
either to him or directly to the caliph about possible uprisings and about the
conduct of government officials. Merchants, traders, travelers, doctors, and
even old women acted as spies.

By keeping Baghdad in touch with even the farthest outlying provinces and
providing al-Ma'mun with crucial information, the postal system was an important
factor in the caliph's efforts to maintain control of his vast and often unruly
empire.

Caravansaries are lodging places for caravans, bands of travelers who journey
together for security and mutual aid.



A FLOWERING OF ARTS AND WISDOM

The five centuries of the Abbasid era (A.D. 750-1258) saw the flowering of the
arts and sciences. Unlike the Umayyads, the Abbasids sought to assimilate all
Muslims -- both Arabs and non-Arabs -- into one Muslim community with equal
rights for every member. To be sure, the Abbasid interpretation of Islam was
more universal than the only-Arab position held by the Umayyads. It was this
interpretation that brought the Abbasids into contact with nations of diverse
backgrounds and cultural ideas.

Special emphasis was placed on studying scientific books and papers that were
written in the Greek, Indian, and Syriac languages. Since not all scholars or
students spoke these languages, it was necessary to translate them. Naturally,
this took time. In addition, the printing press had not been invented, so all
copying had to be done by hand. Records show that the translation process
continued for more than 200 years.

This work of translating began during the reign of al-Mansur (A.D. 754-775), the
second Abbasid caliph. Al-Mansur even had his private doctor, Georgis Bin
Jubra'eel, introduce him to his book collections on medicine, philosophy, and
wisdom that were published in Greek. Under the caliphs Harun al-Rashid and his
son, al-Ma'mun, the translators received even greater encouragement. In fact,
these two rulers were so fond of books that they made obtaining books one of the
conditions of any peace treaty they signed with an enemy or aggressor. As a
result, rulers of nations whose lands bordered Abbasid-controlled areas donated
books whenever they wanted to begin diplomatic efforts or a close friendship
with the caliphs. According to tradition, al-Ma'mun once sent three of his
scholars to obtain manuscripts from a foreign ruler. He then assigned the
respected scholar Hunayn al-Ibadi, who had mastered Greek and Syriac, to
translate them into Arabic.

In the world of music, the Arabs possessed a theory of music long before the
works of the ancient Greeks began to influence their works in the mid-800s.
Among the treatises that were translated into Arabic by the great musical
theorist al-Farabi were works by the Greek philosopher Aristotle and the Greek
mathematician Euclid. Soon after, the science of music became a main subject in
the curriculum and was studied by most students.

Scholars in the time of Harun al-Rashid and al-Ma'mun not only translated many
medical and philosophical works written by the ancient Greeks and Indians, but
they also made, modified, and documented significant inventions and discoveries
of their own. These were in the fields of trigonometry, astronomy, algebra,
medicine, and mechanical technology. The word "algebra" comes from the Arabic
aljabr, meaning "the union of broken parts." The first important Arabic work on
algebra was written during al-Ma'mun's reign by al-Khwarizmi, from whose name
the English word "algorithm" is derived.

Painting flourished in the Abbasid period. An example is an account by the poet
al-Mutanabbi, who speaks of the decoration of a tent. He describes a field with
some animal groups fighting and some at peace, and a scene showing a Byzantine
king and his generals prostrating themselves before a ruler.

Al-Ma'mun himself is said to have written beautiful poetry. As a child, he had
always enjoyed books and reading. Later he studied history, and spoke and wrote
beautiful Arabic. Often referred to as the wisest of the Abbasids, al-Ma'mun
clearly believed in promoting the arts and sciences.

Algorithm refers to a systematic procedure for solving a mathematical problem.




THE MU'TAZILAH

*
The Mu'tazilah were theologians (students of religion) whose teachings
introduced new ideas that influenced the development of Islamic thought and
culture. Thus their name is appropriate, since the Arabic term mu'tazilah
literally means "separatists" or "those who are separate." The Mu'tazilah were
strong defenders of human reason and freedom, and their writings covered many
areas, including religion, psychology, physics, politics, and the sciences.

*
Baghdad was one of the centers of Mu'tazilah thought. The first caliph to adopt
their religious beliefs was al-Ma'mun, who had the scholars at the House of
Wisdom (Bayt al Hikmah) incorporate them into their teachings. As a result, a
new falsafa ("philosophy" or "way of thinking") developed.



LIFE IN THE HOUSE OF WISDOM

Seek ye knowledge, from the cradle to the grave.

From the Hadith

As Islam and its followers spread east and west from the Arabian Peninsula,
Muslims intermingled with many peoples whom they had never previously
encountered. It was not long before the various cultures in these areas were
weaving one of history's greatest tapestries of intellectual, religious, and
scientific growth. The most important site for this exchange of learning was
Baghdad's Bayt al Hikmah, or "House of Wisdom," which was greatly enlarged in
A.D. 830 by the caliph al-Ma'mun. Built around magnificent libraries and
astronomical observatories that had been constructed through the centuries, the
Bayt al Hikmah was "the jewel" of Baghdad.

As Muslim rule created an extended, unified state that eventually reached from
China to Spain, many scholars in these distant lands eagerly traveled to Baghdad
to visit and do research at the House of Wisdom. Jews, Christians, Muslims, and
Zoroastrians all joined al-Ma'mun's effort to the world's knowledge into one
place. Those who were fortunate enough to work in Baghdad were able to draw upon
the learning of other great civilizations such as China, India, Africa, Greece,
and Persia. As a result, these scholars became the newest link in a long chain
of world wisdom that would eventually enter Europe. There it would fan the
intellectual fires of the Renaissance.

The trip to Baghdad in the A.D. 800s was not an easy one. Dry desert sands and
hot, humid temperatures were just two of the obstacles a traveler would face.
Records tell of many who set out for the city, but never arrived. For those who
did make it, the rewards were tremendous. Scholars were highly valued and
respected in Baghdad. Translators often received payment for their work based on
the weight of the work. That is, they were given an amount of gold that was
equal to how much the work weighed when placed on a scale. And, these
translators found it easy to spend the money they earned.

Silks, exotic spices, even acrobats were just a few of the items that could be
purchased in the city's great markets. Among the most highly valued trade items
were books. This was especially true after papermaking was introduced to
Baghdad.

Scholars often followed trade caravans to distant parts of the world in their
search for ancient manuscripts. In these lands, they visited libraries,
astronomical observatories, and royal palaces. In Muslim-controlled lands, their
efforts were well rewarded, since Muslim leaders often competed for recognition
and greater prestige by supporting scholarship, art, and music. Many scholars
traveled to Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine empire, where
Christianity was the official religion. This city -- known today as Istanbul --
was another international center for the arts, culture, religion, and trade.
Upon their return to the House of Wisdom, the scholars would translate the
manuscripts they had found, adding notes and commentaries whenever necessary.

A book written by al-Baghdadi ("the One from Baghdad") some 100 years after the
rule of al-Ma'mun provides a glimpse of the hectic intellectual life in Baghdad
at the time. Al-Baghdadi included in his work the biographies of 7,799 male
scholars, and 32 female scholars. All had studied in Baghdad, and all had made
significant contributions to the advancement of knowledge. Indeed, a few had
translated and expanded upon as many as 200 ancient texts in their lifetime.

This unquenchable thirst for knowledge is perhaps best summarized by a modem
scholar named R.A. Nicholson, who wrote in his A Literary History of the Arabs:
"It seemed as if all the world -- from the caliph to the humblest of citizens --
suddenly became students. ... In their quest for knowledge, men traveled across
three continents and returned home, like bees laden with honey, to impart the
precious knowledge that they had accumulated to crowds of eager disciples."

These traveling scholars were highly respected, and soon people as far away as
northern Europe began to equate the long, dark robe of the Arab scholars with
wisdom. Today, at graduation ceremonies throughout the United States and in
Europe, students still wear long robes -- a continuing link in the exciting
chain of learning that dates to ancient times.

The Hadith contains the sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad. After the
Qur'an, it is often considered the most important source for religious guidance
by Muslims.

Zoroastrians practice Zoroastrianism, a religion founded around 1000 B.C. by a
Persian priest named Zarathushtra (known today as Zoroaster), who lived in
present-day Iran. Followers believe in two divine forces: a good god, known as
Ahura Mazda or Ormazd, and an evil god, Angra Mainya or Ahriman, who continually
wage war against each other.

The Renaissance refers to the period in Western Civilization between 1350 and
1550 when a surge of creative energy swept across Europe and resulted in a
flowering of the arts and a sciences.



FUN WITH WORDS

WORD ORIGINS

Saffron

Saffron is made from a species of crocus that has purple flowers. Since
approximately 40,000 blossoms are needed to make an ounce of saffron, it is one
of the world's most expensive spices. The English language adopted and adapted
the Old French spelling of the spice, safran, which, in turn, traced its roots
through the medieval Latin safranum to the Arabic name for the spice, za'faran.

Safari

Originally, the term "safari" was used to describe great hunting expeditions,
especially into the jungles of Africa. The word is used today to refer to any
travel expedition that involves adventure. This change brings "safari" closer to
its origin, the Arabic word safara ("travel").

WORD STORIES

Decipher

Understanding the past often means deciphering what the ancients wrote. While
some languages are easy to understand, others are much more difficult "to figure
out" or "decipher." The English term "decipher" is actually a combination of the
Latin preposition de ("down from") and the Arabic adjective sifr ("empty" or
"nothing"). Many scholars believe that the first regular use of the number zero
(sifr) began with the Muslim mathematician and astronomer al-Khwarizmi in
Baghdad during the reign of al-Ma'mun. Within 100 years, the use of zero and
Arabic numbers was spreading throughout Europe. Thus it was only natural that
Europeans would adapt the Arabic word for the number "zero." Hence, the French
formed chiffre; the Spanish, cifra. English later adapted these forms to
"cipher," which also means "zero." The coining of "decipher" followed.

Hazard

"Risk," "chance," and "danger" all define the English word "hazard." Its roots
do the same, since "hazard" traces its origin to the Arabic article al ("the")
and the Arabic noun zahr ("die"). And, as we all know, throwing dice (the plural
of "die") involves chance and the unknown. Other languages also adapted al-zahr.
In Spanish it became azar, "an unexpected accident."

EXPRESSIONS

"So Long"

The actual derivation of this phrase is a matter of debate. Some trace its
history to the Arabic greeting Salaam, from the Arabic verb aslama, meaning to
seek "peace." While Salaam is an ancient greeting, records indicate that "so
long" only came into use in the late 1850s.



ZUBAIDAH: A POWER BEHIND THE THRONE

Al-Ma'mun's two wives lived with female relatives and slaves in women's
quarters, which were off limits to all but the men of the family. The English
word "harem" comes directly from the Arabic haram, meaning "forbidden."

Although Muslim custom did not allow women public roles, wives and mothers had
considerable influence behind the scenes -- especially Zubaidah, al-Ma'mun's
stepmother.

Zubaidah possessed a huge fortune, which she spent with style, cunning, and
generosity. Since she could not leave the harem, she formed a uniformed corps of
pageboys and girls to run errands. Her adult agents traveled widely, supervising
the making of splendid brocades, jeweled slippers, and ambergris candles unique
to her court. She trained singers and servants, including a chorus of 100 slave
girls who recited the Qur'an in shifts all day long. Although sometimes jealous,
she made sure entertainers pleased her husband, Harun al-Rashid.

To this day, Arabs tell stories about the couple. In one tale, al-Rashid gripes
to the poet Abu Nuwas about the sorry state of manhood in his empire. Husbands
cannot even stand up to their own wives! "Every time you find a man who's afraid
of his wife," al-Rashid instructs Abu Nuwas, "make him pay a fine of one
donkey."

When Abu Nuwas returns, al-Rashid wants to know how many donkeys he has
collected.

"First, let me tell you about this beauty I saw," Abu Nuwas says. "Her cheeks
are like pomegranates, her hair...her eyes...Shall I bring her to you?"

"Shh," says al-Rashid. "If Zubaidah hears, she'll kill me."

"You owe me a donkey," says Abu Nuwas.

Few dared defy the caliph's favorite wife. Poets wrote verses at Zubaidah's
command; judges accepted her bribes. Visitors kissed the hand of her pet monkey
-- until one disgusted general split the spoiled beast in two with his sword.

After al-Ma'mun's mother, a slave Zubaidah had given al-Rashid, died in
childbirth, Zubaidah raised the boy. She later had one son, al-Amin. Although
Zubaidah supported al-Amin in the civil war, she did not avenge his death.
Instead she wrote long letters to al-Ma'mun and mended their relationship. She
also befriended his young fiancee -- so that when the caliph offered Buran
anything she wanted on her wedding day, she asked for permission for Zubaidah to
make one last pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca.

Religion brought out the best in Zubaidah. Islam required believers to perform
the hajj, if possible, and to aid the poor. Zubaidah made several pilgrimages to
Mecca. Along the way, she saw many other pilgrims trudging along under the fiery
sun. To ease their journey, she had a road and hostels built. She also had
hostels built for Muslims and Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem. Long remembered
for her charity, Zubaidah started a royal tradition of caring for holy sites.

Ambergris is a solid substance that sometimes forms in the alimentary canal (the
tube that functions in the digestion of food) of sperm whales and then passes to
the intestines. Ambergris pieces are small and are usually found floating in the
sea or washed up on shore. Ambergris was essential to the making of many kinds
of perfume.




A CELEBRATION FIT FOR A CALIPH

Lucky were the guests invited to the wedding of al-Ma'mun and his second wife,
Buran ibn Sahl. Buran's father, Hasan, threw a party that lasted 17 days, or
rather 17 nights, since the wedding took place during the holy month of Ramadan,
when devout Muslims fast from sunrise to sunset. After dark, the feasting began.

Hasan showered the company with gold and silver coins and expensive ingredients
for perfume -- ambergris and musk. For his high-ranking guests, Hasan rolled out
hollow balls of musk as big as basketballs. The army general or court official
who cracked open one of these mysterious, fragrant eggs found inside a slip of
paper with a name. At the door, guests could claim their prizes -- a horse, a
slave girl, or even a piece of land.

Buran and al-Ma'mun had been engaged for a decade -- since she was eight and he
was 31. This was a political match. Originally from Persia, the Banu Sahls, her
father's family, had served the caliph as governors and ministers. By marrying
into the family, al-Ma'mun was announcing his commitment to the eastern part of
his empire. However, as with many arranged marriages, the bride and groom grew
fond of each other. Buran traveled with al-Ma'mun on at least one military
campaign, and she was with him when he died, eight years after their wedding.
They had no children.

For the rich and powerful, a wedding was an opportunity to show off. At his
estate near Baghdad, Hasan provided rooms for the caliph's entire court,
including the escorting army. He did not overlook the women either and hosted
special festivities in the harem. At one point, he had a mat of woven gold
spread on the floor and pearls poured at al-Ma'mun's feet -- gifts for the
ladies. (They were too proud to bend over and pick up the gems until the caliph
gave them a nudge, and then each took only one pearl.) Buran's grandmother
tipped a tray of pearls over the bride's head.

Not to be outdone, the royal family spent millions of dirhams (a unit of money)
on gifts. The caliph's stepmother, Zubaidah, gave the bride an entire estate, as
well as an antique ruby jacket. Al-Ma'mun granted Buran three wishes. He also
presented his father-in-law with a year's income from two provinces, which more
than paid the wedding bills. The grand celebration was the talk of the empire
for years.

Musk refers to a substance usually obtained from a gland of the make Asian
mountain musk deer. This substance, like ambergris, was treasured for its
fragrance and essential for the making of certain perfumes.



AFTER AL-MA'MUN

During the last years of al-Ma'mun's reign, religious differences threatened to
divide the empire. To prevent such a disaster, al-Ma'mun ordered government
officials to reject radical religious beliefs as un-Islamic. Unfortunately, this
decree caused even more disunity, and the ulama ("learned men") now tried to
impose their religious ideas on the Muslim community. The ulama opposed the
views of the worldly Abbasids, and taught that everyone could understand the
divine law as they understood it. (This understanding involved a commitment to
believe that the Qur'an, the divine scripture for Muslims, was "uncreated," and
therefore was a "ancient" as God.) Al-Ma'mun disagreed. He saw such thinking as
a challenge to the absolute authority of the caliph, and decreed that anyone who
adopted this idea of the Qur'an would not be considered a true Muslim. In
addition, the ulama who refused to change their position were to be excluded
from government jobs.

Then, with the little warning, al-Ma'mun died in 833. After eating dates and
drinking ice water on a hot autumn day, he was struck down with a deadly fever.
His younger brother, al-Mu'tasim, inherited both the kingdom and the religious
argument with the ulama. Al-Mu'tasim attempted to strengthen his authority by
increasing the military guard around himself. Since many of these soldiers were
non-Muslims, they felt no loyalty toward the caliph's people and often treated
them badly. Al-Mu'tasim also made his slaves, of which he had thousands, his
personal bodyguards. This decision, combined with the decision to move the
capital from Baghdad to Samarra, a new city he had just built, served to remove
him even further from the people.

As power gradually shifted from Baghdad to the provinces, the people preferred
to support governors who used the public money for local projects. Soon the
Abbasid caliphate ruled only the inner provices, while the outer provinces
became separate Muslim communities.

By 932, the authority of the caliph had been greatly weakened. In fact, caliphs
often found themselves dependent on the support of soldiers who were paid to
defend them. State finances were managed by people who were more concerned with
making profits than with helping the people. Yet, despite these problems,
Abbasid caliphs continued to rule -- though often in name only -- until January
of 1258, when invading Mongols from the east advanced on Baghdad. A month later,
they took control of the capital city and, on February 10, al-Musta'sim was
executed. The Abbasid dynasty had fallen, but its legacy had not. Nor would it.

The intellectual awakening that had started under al-Ma'mun was a movement that
could not be stopped. Indeed, it was Ma'mun's foresight that helped lay the
founbdation for many major accomplishments of Islamic civilization. Al-Ma'mun's
support of the translations of the Greek texts into Arabic had resulted in the
introduction of many new ideas to the Muslim world. New observatories allowed
astronomers to increase their understanding of the stars and planets.
Mathematicians worked and reworked their figures and solved many algebraic
equations. Geographers gained a better understanding of the physical world and
were even able to make maps that marked the time needed to travel from one town
to another.



FROM MARKET TOWN TO ... COSMOPOLITAN CITY

Baghdad Becomes a City

In 758, al-Mansur, the second Abbasid caliph, traveled along the Tigris River in
search of a site to build a new capital. He stopped at a village named
"Baghdad." The town seemed healthy, with many breezes but few mosquitoes or
floods. Fertile land lay on both riverbanks, and nomadic tribes grazed their
herds nearby. Linking the Tigris and Euphrates rivers at this point was the
Sarat Canal. For al-Mansur, this was the perfect spot. The Arab historian
al-Yaqubi later wrote that Mansur claimed the site would become "the harbor of
the world. All the ships that sail up the Tigris ... will anchor here.
Similarly, goods will be brought on ships down the Tigris ... and the Euphrates
from Mosul ... Syria, the border regions, Egypt and the Maghrib [North Africa]
... and unloaded here. It will be a stopping place for the people of...Isfahan
[Persia] and Khurasan [Central Asia]. Praise God who preserved it for me. ... I
will dwell in it as long as I live and my descendants will live there after me.
It will be the most flourishing city in the world."

Planning and Building the "Round City"

Al-Mansur then designed a capital that would reflect his importance as a world
leader: a fortified city near the center of Muslim territory. There, officials
would organize the administration, manage important events, and keep tax records
for provinces from North Africa to Central Asia. There, too, councils would plan
the security and development of the empire, and orders would be issued and
stamped by the Keeper of the Seal.

In A.D. 762, al-Mansur watched from a hill as surveyors marked out a circle
about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) in diameter, and workers dug foundations for thick
walls and a moat. Abu Hanifa, a famous scholar of Islamic law, supervised the
task of making 162,000 bricks for each layer of the wall.

This "Round City" had two walls with space between them. Within the walls were
two circles of dwellings and offices. The inner circle was reserved for the
caliph's family and high officials; the outer, for the rest of the city's 4,000
families. Market arcades lined the roads of the complex. They were moved out
after the Byzantine ambassador advised the caliph: "Unknown to you, your enemies
can penetrate the city any time they wish. ...You are unable to conceal
information about yourself from being spread to the various regions."

Four roads divided the Round City, with a gate at each entrance. The Basra Gate
led to the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. The Damascus Gate led to Syria and
the Mediterranean Sea. The Khurasan Gate led to Persia, Central Asia, and the
Silk Roads. The Kufah Gate led to the hajj (pilgrimage) route toward Medina
(also spelled Madinah) and Mecca (also spelled Makkah). The massive iron portals
were as tall as a mounted horseman carrying a banner aloft. After crossing the
moat, people entered a corridor, then another courtyard, and a second gate.
Above the inner gate was an audience hall where the caliph received visitors
from each Muslim region.

The Palace Compound

In the middle of the city, which al-Mansur officially named Madinat al-Salam
("City of Peace"), was the caliph's compound, surrounded by gardens, fountains,
and pools. His palace was a splendid residence with official audience halls. Its
domed roof was topped by an iron weather vane shaped like a horseman with a
lance. Legend told that the lance pointed toward rebellion in some part of the
empire.

A guard house and police station provided security for the palace. A great
masjid (MAS-jid, or mosque) was originally open to all Baghdad inhabitants for
Friday prayers. When al-Mansur moved the markets, he built another masjid
outside the Round City. The caliphs' isolation from citizens during Friday
prayers was a symbol of the Abbasids' growing distance from the people they
ruled.

A Metropolis Grows

From the moment construction began, Baghdad became a boom town. Suburbs began to
spread outward from the Round City. Muslim historians say that 10,000 builders
and craftsmen arrived from Syria, Iraq, and Persia. Each was paid a handsome
salary from the treasury. As the city took shape, migrants flooded in to make
their mark in Muslim society. Among them were merchants, artists, and scholars,
many of whom had only recently accepted Islam. Military supporters were granted
lands to farm.

A variety of craftsmen, including builders, bakers, carpenters, ironsmiths,
potters, tailors, supplied the new citizens' basic needs. Because many residents
demanded luxury goods, industries developed to satisfy the expensive tastes.
Textile factories manufactured fine cloth for the court and for export.
Caravansaries -- somewhat like truck stops or motels -- lay on major roads
outside the city. Business taxes were an important source of income for the
Abbasids.

Specialized markets developed in many districts. When al-Mansur removed the
shops to Karkh, he ordered: "Place the butcher's market at the end because their
wits are dull, and they have sharp knives."

Baghdad was dotted with watering gardens, orchards, and fields. Boats and barges
floated along the canals that laced through the city. Public baths, wells, and
fountains helped to maintain Islamic standards of hygiene. An official census
once counted 10,000 bathhouses.

Social Life and Culture

From the poor in rags to the wealthy in silken robes, every class of people
found its niche in the metropolis. Baghdad's citizens ate, slept, laughed, and
wept in houses of grass and mud, as well as in solid, well furnished homes and
magnificent palaces. Baghdad offered the chance to make and lose a fortune, or
to live a humble life. Police, market inspectors, and judges kept order and
justice. Charity, an important Islamic duty, narrowed the gap between rich and
poor. The wealthiest inhabitants of the city set an example by giving to the
less fortunate, and added to the city's beauty with public works.

Most residents were Muslim, but Islamic law granted protection to Jews,
Christians, and other religious groups and to their places of worship and study.
Individuals from each group achieved success and fame. Women from poorer classes
helped earn their families' living, while upper-class women lived more secluded
lives of luxury. Many women played influential, but not always visible, roles in
the family, the government, and the economy.

Learning happened in many places. Education took place at home with a tutor, in
the masjid, in the artisans' shops, or at scholars' feet. Baghdad attracted
talented people of many cultures. From storytellers in the marketplace or
private garden to poets in the palace, literature was everywhere. A camel-driver
was once heard reciting a poem about the caliph's policies.

Public and private libraries housed thousands of volumes, and special
institutions such as teaching hospitals and observatories were established for
scientific work. Baghdad's reputation grew, and its learning spread far and
wide.

Within thirty years, Baghdad had become an important Muslim city and one of the
world's major cultural centers. While London, Paris, and Rome still counted only
a few thousand inhabitants, Baghdad may have had more than one million. Over the
centuries, the size of the city varied, and so, too, did its markets,
neighborhoods, and power centers. Yet, it always continued as a landmark of
Muslim civilization.



IMAGES OF LIFE IN BAGHDAD

An Arabic scholar and public official named al-Hariri wrote a collection of
tales entitled Maqamat al-Hariri. A copy of the publication from the early 1200s
has survived, which includes several illustrations by the artist al-Wasiti.
These images show scenes that might have been found in various parts of Baghdad
at the time. Using the map, the drawings by al-Wasiti that appear on these two
pages, and the text on pp. 28-33, answer the following questions:

1 Describe the shape of the Round City's gates. Why do you think the entrance
did not lead straight into the government complex?

2 Besides security, why do you think Baghdad's markets were located outside the
Round City?

3 Match the illustrations of a congregation in the masjid (mosque), a judge, a
hajj caravan, a village scene, a market scene, a cemetery, friends in garden
with features shown on the map of Baghdad. Give reasons for your decision.

4 Write a paragraph describing the scene and characters in one of the images.
Discuss some observations about the people and their society that you think the
artist might have wanted to express.

5 Using your knowledge of geography, describe the landscape that lay beyond the
city of Baghdad.



THE CALIPH'S PALACES

In early Abbasid times, so much wealth came from the vast territories that it
seemed impossible to spend it all. Caliphs, their families, and courtiers
created an atmosphere of splendor. Few ruins or objects from the palaces have
survived, but we do have historians' colorful descriptions. Al-Mansur himself
built the first palace outside the Round City. Then, he built for his son the
first of many palaces on the eastern bank of the Tigris River. This area soon
became home to top government ministers and sons of the caliphs. Palaces were
built of brick, but decorated with marble and ceramic files. Rare tropical woods
from India were carved with intricate designs and used for doors, beams, and
furnishings. Textiles -- fabrics of all types -- covered walls, floors, and
seats. Visitors saw silken wall hangings embroidered with gold, silver, and
jewels. They marveled at thick carpets that appeared to be set with jewels, but
were probably made of silk that had been dyed in jewel-like colors and woven
into flower patterns like a plush garden. They ate from precious dishes.
Automata, or clockwork mechanical "toys," such as the fountain to the left,
entertained foreign ambassadors.

Fountains (by special design) moved like drinking animals, musicians played, and
"servants" poured perfumed water. In an artificial pond stood a silver tree "on
which perched gold and silver birds ... the boughs swayed, rustling their leaves
of various colors ... and each of the birds would whistle and sing."

NOTE: The description of the silver tree was written by al-Khatib, a religious
scholar and historian who lived in Baghdad and died in 1071.



IRAQI ART TODAY

No other country in the world has the quality and quantity of art and artists
(considering its size and population) as does Iraq, and yet has such a low
profile. Its people are inexperienced in marketing and promoting the arts. In
addition, despite serious commitment and financial encouragement by the
government since the 1950s, Iraqi art is not respected and encouraged by
society. As a result, the art of Iraq is relatively unknown outside of its
borders.

Since my childhood, art -- especially Iraqi art -- has been a part of my
spirituality. Whenever I visit Iraq, I make sure to attend as many art and
cultural events as I can. During my trip in early 1999, I saw three comedies and
attended a performance by the Iraqi National Symphony Orchestra. I also
interviewed young women musicians.

The first comedy I saw was performed by unknown, but very talented, actors and
actresses. A few were Iraqis, but most were Kuwaitis. The play had a
well-written scenario and dialogue, and humorous punch lines. The second comedy
was a criticism of the Iraqi system in general and of various government
departments in particular. Starring in the play was the famous actor Mohammed
Hussein Abdel Rahim. Despite the overall weak story line, he did a marvelous job
delivering his sharp humor. I also watched a third play, which featured
outstanding performances by two actors as well as a gypsy dancer. All three
plays featured singing and dancing, both of which were unheard of in Iraqi plays
during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. Today, serious and dramatic performances
have no place in the lives of bored and depressed Iraqis undergoing a blockade
and a calamity.

I also enjoyed the concert performed by the Iraqi National Symphony Orchestra.
This 40-member group was founded in the early 1970s. The evening featured three
Western-style pieces composed by three Iraqi musicians who are members of the
orchestra.



SUQ AL-WARRAQIN

In the shadow of the Round City by the Basra Gate was the Suq al-Warraqin
("Market of the Paper-sellers"). Just as office supply and photocopy stores feed
paper into federal offices today, the Muslim state had a big appetite for
documents. As the Muslim administration of the Abbasids grew ever more complex,
officials found themselves in need of increasing amounts of writing material.

Before Abbasid times, governments used either parchment, made of animal skins,
or papyrus, made from reeds that grew along the Nile River. The art of
papermaking entered the Muslim world from China around A.D. 751. Harun
al-Rashid's government switched to paper after A.D. 786.

Papyrus crumbled easily, and writing on parchment was too easily erased. Neither
was secure, lasting, or cheap. Paper, on the other hand, absorbed permanent ink.
It was also long-lasting, plentiful, and light in weight. Al-Jahiz, a famous
Muslim teacher and scholar, wrote an essay against parchment, saying that it
stinks, curls, stretches, and strains writers' eyes.

Al-Ma'mun was the first caliph to open a paper factory in Baghdad. Water-powered
hammers (known as trip-hammers) mashed the pulp, which consisted of cotton
fiber, rags, or old paper. Woven bamboo screens let papermakers roll off many
sheets at once, since the paper could dry outside the mold on which it was made.
Soon, the technology spread to other Muslim lands and, centuries later, to
Europe.

The ability to make paper greatly affected intellectual life. The scholars at
the House of Wisdom could not have preserved and spread so much learning around
the Muslim lands without paper. In addition, the flood of writing helped spread
the Arabic language. Paper was also perfect for expeditions: "If a scholar
wished to take parchment on a journey," wrote al-Jahiz, "a camel's load would
not suffice," but he could carry enough paper in a small sack.

The Suq al-Warraqin was a key player in the intellectual life of Muslim cities.
It was also a place much greater than its humble name. Suq means "market." Waraq
(WARuk) in Arabic means a "leaf" of paper. Warraq (war RAK) means
"paper-seller," "bookseller," "notary," "scribe," or "secretary." Warraqin were
like publishers today. Ibn Nadim, a Baghdad warraq, wrote an encyclopedia on the
writers and books available in the bookmarket of his time. Al-Jahiz used to rent
bookshops by the day (there were 100 of them in Baghdad) to read the books they
contained. Foreign book merchants scoured the suq to fill clients' libraries.

Customers at the suq found everything related to writing. It had classrooms
where young people learned to read and write. Literary and political groups met
in its arcades. Frantic citizens paid secretaries to file petitions with the
caliph's officials. Diplomats had documents copied and speeches written.
Students gathered around famous scholars, and scientists had hot debates over
cool refreshments. Calligraphers penned delicate inscriptions while illustrators
brushed gold ink and powdered jewels on the most expensive papers. Bookbinders
bound the books with gold-stamped leather.

Suq al-Warraqin was more than an office superstore. It was a nerve center of
ideas and communication for Baghdad, a style-setter for a whole civilization.



A ROYAL WEAVE: MAKE A BOOKMARK

During the A.D. 700s and 800s, court weavers of Baghdad created luxurious
fabrics for royal garments and trimmings. They made intricate designs by adding
decorative threads during the weaving process. These threads were woven only
into design areas, while background threads went all the way across the cloth.
This elaborate technique, called "brocade," is used worldwide today. In the
early 1800s, a brocade loom was developed in Europe that used punched cards to
"program" complicated designs and patterns. That system set the stage for the
development of computers.

Directions

1 Beginning at 6 inches from one end of the twine, wrap the twine lengthwise
around the meat tray to make 21 warp threads. Tie the two ends together in back.

2 Cut out two cardboard needles, 1/2-inch by 3 inches. Punch a hole in one end
of each needle, and cut a point at the other end. Thread one with the remaining
twine (background thread), and the other with contrasting-colored yarn.

3 Starting at the bottom of your loom with the background thread, weave 3 to
rows of plain weave. (In an alternating pattern, weave over one thread, under
the next, across all warp threads.) As you weave, press each row toward you with
the side of your needle (a process called beating).

4 Now you are ready to weave your first brocade row. Follow the diamond design
(diagram A), or make up your own. The back side of your design is facing you.
Loose yarn should be on this side after each row is woven. Weave the background
needle in but DO NOT pull it through. Instead, rotate it to separate the warp
threads (diagram B). This forms a shed. Where you want your design to start,
insert the yarn needle into the shed and run it along until you want it to stop.
Bring the needle up out of the shed and pull the colored yarn through. Leave a
short tail of yarn at the beginning. Pull the twine through and beat with the
needle.

5 Weave the background needle for the next row. Again, make a shed and insert
the colored yarn for your design. Bring the yarn back to the top and pull both
threads through. Continue weaving the background and the yarn design, beating
after each row. Remember, the yarn goes only where you want your design to show.
When your design is complete, leave another short yarn tail and continue the
background weave for another 3 to 4 rows.

6 Cut all the threads on the back side of your loom. For the fringe, knot the
ends together so that you use 3 strands to make each knot.

To Weave a Simple Brocade Bookmark You Need:

• a clean foam meat tray, 6 x 8 inches

• 12-13 yards of cotton twine

• 1 yard of contrasting-colored yarn

• thin cardboard (from back of a pad of paper)

• scissors

• hole punch



THE ARABIAN NIGHTS: THE TALE OF THE FISHERMAN AND THE GENIE

Long ago in Persia there lived two kings who were brothers. Each of their wives
was unfaithful to them and, in revenge, the eldest brother decided to sleep with
a different woman each night and to slay her in the morning. Every day, the
king's vizier (a high-ranking government official) supplied him with another
woman to entertain him. One time, the eldest daughter of the vizier told her
father to send her to spend the night with the king. The vizier argued
vehemently against such a plan, but she insisted that he do so. Reluctantly, the
vizier gave his daughter, Sheherazade, to the king and said, "May Allah not
deprive me of you." But Sheherazade had a plan, a plan that involved telling the
king a different story each night, thereby delaying her death and prevented
others from being killed.

One night, she said to the king...

I heard, O king, that there once lived an old, poor fisherman, who could hardly
provide food for his wife and three daughters. One day he cast his net four
times into the sea. The first time he hauled in a dead donkey. Another toss
netted a jug filled with sand and mud. A third cast was hard to pull up ("I must
have caught a very big fish," he thought), but it only contained a jumble of
broken pots and garbage. He wept at his plight and wondered how he would ever be
able to support his loved ones. He prayed to Allah to be good to him and flung
out his net one last time. When he tried to haul it in, it was so heavy that he
could hardly move it. He then swam out and dove down to unfasten his tangled
net. When he was able to gather it in, he found a large, long-necked, brass jar
with a lead stopper bearing the seal of King Solomon. "I'll sell it in the
market," he thought to himself, rejoicing. "It will be worth at least two
measures of wheat."

But, when he tried to remove it, the jar wouldn't budge, so he decided to pry
off the stopper and empty it out. A little plume of smoke soon began to emerge
from the opening of the brass jar. It spread out wide in the sky and slowly
formed itself into a terrible-looking, giant genie. The fisherman was
speechless; he was terribly afraid.

"I bring you good news," said the genie. "I will kill you, fisherman, but you
can choose the way in which you'll die."

"Is that good news?" asked the fisherman. "Why do you wish to kill me? Is that
your thanks for my having rescued you?"

"Choose how you'd like to die!" replied the genie. "That is my thanks."

"But why?"

"Listen, and I'll tell you my story ... Long ago, I rebelled against King
Solomon, the son of King David, so he sent one of his men to capture me. When I
refused to obey him, he confined me in this brass jar, sealed it, and ordered it
thrown deep into the sea. I prayed for someone to rescue me and pledged to make
that person rich. But, 200 years went by and I remained locked up in that dark,
dank, cramped jar. I vowed to myself, 'I will bestow the riches of the earth to
the one who delivers me.' But, another 400 years passed and still no one came to
my rescue. Finally, I began to grow angry and said, 'I'll kill the first person
to open this jar.' And then you came by and set me free."

"Just my luck! I would have to be the one who freed you!"

"I'm sorry, but so it is," the genie replied. "Your death is your reward."

"Is this how you're going to repay me? A bad deed for a good one?"

The fisherman knew that he had to think fast or that he would soon be killed. He
thought of his wife and children. He prayed to Allah, and then a possible way to
outwit the genie occurred to him. "If only it would work," he thought.

"May I ask you one last question?" the fisherman said.

"Yes, but be quick about it," said the genie.

"By the Almighty's name, tell me if you were really inside this jar?"

"Of course I was in there."

"I think you're lying. That jar is not large enough for even one of your hands
or feet. How could your whole body fit inside it?"

"I was inside. Don't you believe it?"

"No, I don't. Prove it to me."

Hearing this, the genie shook himself and turned back into a large wisp of
smoke. Little by little, he coiled himself around like a snake and reentered the
jar. When the smoke had disappeared, the genie shouted from within, "Fisherman,
here I am in the jar. Do you believe me now?"

The fisherman at once took out the lead stopper and clamped it on the mouth of
the jar. Then he cried out, "Genie, now tell me how you wish to die?" "Spare
me!" cried the genie. "Don't blame me for my actions. I was only joking with
you. Be kind to me."

"You're lying! Why should I ever let you out? You insisted on killing me even
though I set you free. I'm going to toss you back into the sea."

"Let me go free again and I swear that I'll never harm you. I'll make you rich."

"You're lying," said the fisherman.

But the fisherman eventually gave in to the genie's pleas for mercy. He made the
genie pledge to be good to him if he let him out, and then he unfixed the lead
stopper again. The smoke began to funnel into the sky and turned into a
full-sized genie again. When he got completely out of the brass jar, the genie
suddenly kicked it far out into the sea. The fisherman grew scared and trembled
again, but the genie said: "Don't worry. Follow me, fisherman."

He took him to the far side of a mountain where they came to a tranquil lake in
the middle of a vast wilderness. He ordered the fisherman to cast in his net.
More fish swam here than the fisherman had ever seem.

"Here you may fish peacefully," said the genie, "and you'll become rich, selling
these rare delicacies to the king."

When morning came, Sheherazade lapsed into silence. The king wanted to hear
more, but he needed to tend to the affairs of his kingdom, so he left, resolving
to hear the rest of the story in the evening.



FAMOUS STORIES NOT FROM THE ARABIAN NIGHTS

*
The Arabian Nights, a mixture of exotic tales of magic and passion, is a
collection of stories that a woman named Sheherazade is said to have told every
night for 1,000 nights to save herself and her people. Passed down orally for
centuries before they were written down in the late 1200s, the stories
originated in Persia. Throughout the ages, storytellers, editors, and
translators have added to, deleted, and modified them. Today, they have come to
include Arabian folktales, indian fables, and Turkish anecdotes. The most
authentic version of the tales surviving today is based on a 1300s Syrian
manuscript housed in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris.

*
Many people think that the well-known and popular stories of "Sinbad the
Sailor," "Aladdin and the Magic Lamp," and "Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves" come
from The Arabian Nights, but it's not true. In fact, no one knows when or where
these tales originated, but they became associated with The Arabian Nights when
later translators and editors decided to include them among the tales. In truth,
no definitive edition of The Arabian Nights exists today -- and perhaps it never
has.