MUSINGS

I HAVE NEVER LEARNED HOW TO TUNE A HARP, OR PLAY THE LYRE, BUT I DO KNOW HOW TO
RAISE A SMALL AND LITTLE KNOWN CITY-STATE TO GLORY AND GREATNESS.

Themistokles, Athenian general in the Persian Wars

Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis -- to the ancient Greeks these three words were
synonymous with freedom, independence, and courage. To the ancient Persians,
they meant a rethinking of their boundary lines. Extending their empire west
across the Mediterranean and Aegean seas was no longer a possibility. To
scholars and others studying this period in history, the words symbolize a clash
between two peoples whose beliefs, customs, and forms of government were very
different.

As you read the articles in this issue, look for clues in the actions and words
of both the Greeks and Persians that reveal these beliefs, customs, and
governing policies. Look, too, for similarities between this decisive
confrontation and other conflicts since 480 B.C., including those happening in
many sections of the world today. It is only through an awareness of the past
that we can better understand the present and begin preparations for the future.



'OS' VERSUS 'US'

*
Have you ever noticed that the name of a Greek hero ends with a us in some books
and an os in other books? How about Greek names that have the letter "k" in some
texts and the letter "c" in others? Why does this happen?

*
After the Romans conquered the Greek world, they borrowed many Greek words,
changing the spelling only slightly to conform to the Latin language. Thus,
instead of the Greek ending os, the Romans used their us ending. Since the
Romans had no "k," they naturally replaced the Greek "k" with "c."

*
Since this issue focuses on the Greek world, we have used os and "k" to spell
Greek names.



A CLOSE SHAVE FOR THE PERSIANS

What would you do if you needed to send a top secret message to someone hundreds
of miles away? What if you were terrified that the enemy might discover you were
plotting a revolt?

Approximately 2,500 years ago, the Greek statesman Histiaios faced such a
situation and devised an ingenious solution. Histiaios was the tyrant (ruler) of
Miletos, a Greek city on the coast of Asia Minor (present-day Turkey) in an area
called Ionia. He had traveled to the court of the Persian king Darius in Susa on
political business and left his relative Aristagoras in charge of Miletos.
According to the ancient Greek historian Herodotos, after Histiaios had assessed
the situation in the royal court, he wanted to signal Aristagoras to revolt
against Persia.

In those days, it took three months to travel from Susa to Miletos. Therefore,
to keep his plan secret, Histiaios had a slave's head shaved. He then had his
message tattooed on the slave's scalp, waited for the slave's hair to grow back,
and sent the man to Aristagoras. When the slave's head was shaved again,
Aristagoras read, "Revolt!"

Why would Aristagoras want to revolt against King Darius? Why were there Greek
cities on the coast of Asia Minor, and why were Persians involved with them? For
the answers to these questions, we must travel back even further in time.

Long before the Ionian Revolt, mainland Greece had established colonies
throughout the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. One of these areas was Ionia,
which included the land along the central coast of Asia Minor and several
neighboring islands. There, Greek cities were successful and prosperous.
Miletos, in particular, was a thriving, sophisticated, intellectual and
commercial center. It prided itself on being home to some of the world's and
historians, including Thales and Hekataios.

Recently, however, these Ionian cities had been conquered by the Persians, a
people from far to the southeast (present-day Iran), whose rulers constantly
sought to extend the boundaries of their empire. By 500 B.C., the Persian Empire
stretched from the edge of India in the east to the Mediterranean in the west,
and from the Black Sea in the north to Upper Egypt in the south. The empire was
now ruled by King Darius, who had organized his massive kingdom into 20
satrapies (provinces), each one ruled by a satrap (governor).

Records indicate that Darius was not a cruel king. He even installed Greek
tyrants, such as Aristagoras and Histiaios, to govern Ionian cities. The
Persians reasoned that these Greeks, grateful for their high positions, would be
loyal to Persia.

Many tyrants, however, were cruel and abusive, especially those who had the firm
support of Persian satraps. The situation became especially oppressive when
Athens, in 510 B.C., ousted its tyrants in favor of a government that was more
representative of its citizens. Other Greek cities had followed Athens' example,
and now Ionian Greeks wanted a more democratic form of government as well.

No records have yet been found that tell exactly why Histiaios and Aristagoras
wanted revolution. The time, however, was certainly ripe. Ionia wished to expell
its tyrants, and the Greeks there considered the high Persian tax rate and the
military service demanded by Persian law unjust.

In 499 B.C., Histiaios sent his secret message to Aristagoras, and Miletos
revolted. Aristagoras resigned as tyrant (although he stayed in charge of
Miletos) and helped remove tyrants elsewhere. He personally campaigned for aid,
and even traveled to the Greek mainland. The Athenians, who claimed to be the
founders of Miletos, felt loyal to their "daughter" colony and generously sent a
fleet of 20 ships to fight. Eretria, a city on the Greek mainland north of
Athens, contributed five ships. Others joined the cause, too.

Ionian soldiers met Athenian and Eretrian ships near Ephesos, and the combined
forces marched to Sardis, a major Persian capital. Boldly, they set the city on
fire. Back at Ephesos, however, the Persians destroyed Ionian forces.

The burning of Sardis inspired other Ionian cities to rebel. It also ignited
undying revenge in Darius. He commanded a slave to say to him three times at
every meal, "Master, remember the Athenians."

Fighting flared from northern Byzantion to southern Cyprus. In one of the
fiercest battles, 10,000 Ionians from Karia and 2,000 Persians died. Still, the
war raged.

Then, in 494 B.C., the Persians attacked Miletos by land and sea. Seventy
thousand Greeks fought the Persians near the small island of Lade, a short
distance from Miletos. Victory went to the Persians, as the 353 Ionian triremes
fell before Persia's 600 ships. For the Greeks, the Persian sack of Miletos
would forever symbolize the ruthlessness of war. The Persians ravaged the
elegant city, enslaving or killing its inhabitants. Never again did Miletos
enjoy its former greatness.

By 493 B.C., the revolt was over. Yet strangely, once the Persians reconquered
Ionia, Herodotos says they withdrew their tyrants, instituted greater democracy,
and even reduced taxation.

The revolt was crushed within five years, but the outcome was not decisive.
Ionian Greeks had proved their assertiveness, and mainland Greece its support,
but

Darius had shown an awesome anger. The Ionians may have tasted a delicious
freedom from Persia, but Persia hungered for revenge. King Darius now looked to
mainland Greece.

Bysantion is the Greek spelling. The Romans called the city Byzantium. in 330
B.C., the Roman emperor Constantine officially changed the name to
Constantinople. The Turkish Republic renamed the city Istanbul in 1930.

Triremes are warships with three banks, or rows, of oars on each side of the
vessel. The Romans borrowed the Greek Design and used their words tres ("three")
and remi ("oars") to form the term.



ACCORDING TO HERODOTOS

Much of what we know about Persian society comes from a fifth-century B.C. Greek
historian named Herodotos. Although recent archaeological discoveries have
greatly increased our knowledge of ancient Persia, the best written source on
its culture is still Herodotos' Histories of the Persian Wars. The Histories is
not just concerned with battles and military strategy.

It also provides a detailed portrait of the customs and beliefs of the ancient
Persians and of the various peoples living in their vast empire during this
period.

Herodotos, who lived in Persia for a time while he researched the Histories, was
fascinated by the many differences between Persian and Greek culture. Herodotos
observed that, unlike the Greeks, the Persians did not build statues or temples
to their gods. Indeed, he wrote, "They consider those who do so foolish."
Herodotos noted other practices that differed from those found in the Greek
world.

The Persians shared a deep reverence for rivers, grand birthday celebrations,
and the habit of eating a wide array of desserts with only a few main dishes.
The Greek tradition of serving just one or two desserts, Herodotos remarked, "is
why the Persians say that Greeks are still hungry at the end of a meal."

Although Greece was unquestionably a male-dominated society, Herodotos was still
struck by the importance of "manliness" to the Persians. After "bravery in
battle, the greatest proof of manliness is to be the father of many sons, and
every year the king rewards the man who has fathered the greatest number." The
reward had a practical basis: Persia's rulers thought that "quantity equals
strength," wrote Herodotos, and large families of boys meant more soldiers for
their army.

According to Herodotos, education in Persia was strictly for boys, and stressed
physical skills such as horsemanship and archery over the book learning so
esteemed by Athenians. Children were taught to be honest, for Persians
considered lying the "most disgraceful act" a person could commit.

Even though Persia was his homeland's enemy, Herodotos found much to praise in
Persian society. He particularly admired the Persian custom that no one should
be executed for committing just one crime. One aspect of Persian culture that
Herodotos did not admire, however, was its autocratic political system.

No ruler should hold absolute power, because no human being is capable of
absolute wisdom. Herodotos believed. Moreover, he argued, the tendency of
subjects to say only what they think their ruler wants to hear is a major source
of weakness in any autocracy. Herodotos illustrated his point with a story about
the Persian king Xerxes and his preparations for the invasion of Greece.
According to Herodotos, when Xerxes proposed a risky military campaign, his
advisors failed to point out the obvious weaknesses in his plan: "No one dared
voice an opinion that was contrary to the one placed before them."

Since Herodotos was a boy during Xerxes' reign and would not have observed him
personally, his story probably owes a great deal to his interpretation of what
he heard and read. Nevertheless, while Herodotos probably included scenes
involving Persia's rulers in the Histories that were not based entirely on fact,
archaeological evidence has confirmed the accuracy of much of what he reported.
More than two thousand years after its publication, Herodotos' Histories remains
our most reliable written source for the customs and beliefs of the Persian
people at the time of their war with Greece.

An autocratic government is one in which one person has absolute power. It is a
derivative of two Greek words, autos, meaning "self", and kratos, meaning
"power".



THE FATHER OF HISTORY

*
Some 400 years after Herodotos' death, the well-known Roman statesman and
orator, Marcus Tullius Cicero, referred to Herodotos as the "father of history."
Yet, he was not the first to write about historical events. What, then, makes
him different from previous writers about the past?

*
First, the scope of Herodotos' Histories of the Persian Wars was unprecedented.
Before Herodotos, writers focused on the stories of their own people and showed
little interest in foreigners. In contrast, the Histories included hundreds of
pages about non-Greeks -- including Persians, Egyptians, Indians, and the
Scythian tribes of present-day western Russia.

*
Second, no writer before Herodotos was as concerned with historical cause and
effect. Herodotos begins his Histories by telling his readers that he will not
only describe past events, he will explain them as well. He will also identify
"the cause of the hostilities between Greeks and non-Greeks." Unlike previous
chroniclers of the past, Herodotos tried to understand why events happened.

*
His open-minded curiosity about other cultures and his commitment to exploring
both what occurred in the past and why it occurred, were truly revolutionary.
Without a doubt, Herodotos' Histories changed forever the nature of historical
writing.



A LOUD 'NO' TO THE DEMAND FOR EARTH AND WATER

"Earth and water" was the symbolic demand of Persian kings from their enemies.
If an enemy actually gave earth and water to the Persian king, it symbolized his
submission. If the enemy said "no," it meant war.

In 490 B.C., the Persian king Darius demanded earth and water from the city of
Athens. The Athenians knew the meaning of this request, and they gave Darius a
suitable response. They threw the Persian ambassador into a pit and told him to
get his own earth! Never would the Athenians submit themselves to the authority
of a Persian king. They had their freedom and, if the cost of freedom was war,
then so be it.

Darius was not surprised at the Athenian response. In fact, he was delighted by
it. Over the years, Darius had grown to hate the Athenians. Not only had they
helped several cities revolt against Persian rule, but they also had dared to
attack his capital at Sardis. Darius had been king of Persia for almost 30
years. During that time he had conquered kingdoms as far east as India and as
far south as Egypt. Present-day Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria, and every country
around these nations were part of the ancient Persian Empire. That Darius with
his huge army and vast resources would have any difficulty conquering a small
country like Greece seemed absurd. He therefore made plans for an army to cross
the sea with 600 ships and no fewer than 100,000 soldiers, all of whom had one
order: Bring the Athenians back in chains.

When the Persians landed in Greece, they attacked and defeated the Eretrians,
the neighbors of the Athenians. News of this disaster reached Athens quickly.
The Athenians immediately asked the other Greek cities for help. Only one city
responded -- Plataia (also spelled Plataea). This small town northwest of Athens
sent its entire army of 1,000 hoplites (foot soldiers). The Plataians knew that
their soldiers had no chance of victory against the Persians, but Athens had
helped them in the past, and now it was their turn to return the favor. The
Athenians themselves had 9,000 hoplites. With the Plataians, the Athenians
prepared to fight what they thought was a hopeless battle: 10,000 Greeks against
100,000 Persians. Yet, the Athenians knew that if they did not stop the
Persians, the rest of Greece would fall to Persia.

Warfare in ancient times was a tricky business, and a large army did not always
mean success. To be victorious, an army also needed a great general. Consider,
for example, the Carthaginian general Hannibal or Alexander the Great. Both men
led their armies into hopeless battles only to find victory at the end of the
day.

How did these generals beat the odds? Both used a new weapon or a new tactic.
Hannibal used the landscape and the weather to stop the Romans. Alexander used
weapons and a military formation known as the phalanx that were unknown to his
enemies. For the Greeks who were preparing to face Darius' army, the plan was to
use the element of surprise.

Miltiades was the general who led the Greek army against the Persians on that
summer morning in 490 B.C. The place where the two armies met was called
Marathon, approximately 26 miles from Athens. For several days before the
battle, the Persians had been idle in their camp. No one knows why they did not
attack the Athenians immediately.

Perhaps they were waiting for reinforcements or for news that Athenian traitors
had captured the city of Athens. Whatever the reason, Miltiades saw an
opportunity for victory. To the surprise of the Persians, he rallied his army
for battle and charged.

The Persians were unprepared for the Athenian attack, and the Athenians quickly
crushed the Persian battle lines to the left and to the right. The center of the
Persian army, however, held its ground and began to beat back the Athenians. If
the Persians defending the flanks ("sides") had stood their ground, the Greeks
would have lost, but they panicked and fled the battlefield.

As a result, only the center of the Persian army remained to fight. Eventually
these Persians realized that the battle at Marathon was lost and, like their
comrades, they also fled the field. When the battle was over, 6,000 Persians had
been killed, but only 192 Greeks had died. The Athenians had saved their city
and, more importantly, they had rescued Greece from Persian tyranny.

Phalanx refers to the military formation in which heavily armed foot soldiers,
in rows eight deep, fought with a sarissa ("lance") that was 18 to 21 feet in
length.



MARATHON REMEMBERED TODAY

*
Every year, thousands of runners participate in the Boston Marathon and the New
York Marathon. True to their name, these races are approximately 26 miles long
-- the distance from Marathon to Athens. Why are they called marathons? After
the Greeks defeated the Persians at Marathon in 490 B.C., the Persians set sail
for Athens, intending to capture the city. The Greeks, however, in full armor,
beat the Persians in this race to Athens, and reached the city just as the
Persian ships entered the harbor. The Persians saw that the Greeks were ready
for them and, instead of staying to fight, sailed away.

*
Tradition says that after the victory at Marathon, the Athenians sent a runner
named Pheidippides to Athens to tell of the Greek victory. This Pheidippides was
supposedly the same runner the Athenians had sent to Sparta before the battle to
ask for help. He did make it to Athens, but collapsed and died after announcing
the victory. According to the legend, the Greeks honored Pheidippides with an
annual torch race -- the forerunner of today's marathon.



THEMISTOKLES' 'WOODEN WALL'

The advice from Apollo's oracle at Delphi had been puzzling: The Athenians and
their allies would be safe from the invading Persians behind a "wooden wall."
But which wall? The old one that once surrounded the Akropolis? Should the
Athenians retreat to its rocky summit? Or did Apollo have another strategy in
mind?

For an Athenian statesman named Themistokles, the answer was clear. Fleeing to
the Akropolis meant abandoning the rest of Athenian territory -- both in the
city and the surrounding countryside. It also meant abandoning any hope of
driving the Persians out of Greece. Seeking safety on the Akropolis would only
result in a long and painful siege, followed by slavery and death.

But perhaps "wooden wall" referred to something else, to the ships of Athens'
small but capable navy. Use of the navy would provide speed, flexibility, the
freedom to maneuver, and a chance at victory. These were Themistokles'
arguments, and with them he defeated those who favored retreating to the
Akropolis. Herodotos referred to these people as "old men" because of their lack
of daring.

There was a great deal of work to be done, however, and no time to lose.
Persia's navy was enormous. Herodotos says it numbered 1,000 ships. This figure
may be exaggerated (Herodotos' calculations often were), but there is little
doubt that the Persians had more than 300 fast ships, full of Phoenicians,
Egyptians, Greek islanders (not all Greeks fought on the side of Athens and
Sparta), and other experienced sailors. Athens, on the other hand, had a mere 70
ships -- the largest allied fleet by far -- but certainly no match for Persia.
For this reason, Themistokles began an ambitious construction program in the
dockyards of the Peiraeus, the port of Athens. When the project was complete,
Athens had 200 ships. Most were pentekonters, named for the 50 oars each used
(pentekonta is Greek for "fifty"), and triremes.

How did Athens pay for these new ships? Fortunately, the old mines at Laurium,
an area south of the city, had just begun producing enormous amounts of silver,
thanks to improved mining techniques. The coins minted from this silver were
known to be of high quality, and they were in demand all over the Mediterranean.
(Some cities cheated and produced coins made of cheap metal concealed with a
thin layer of silver.) Wood and other raw materials also poured into Peiraeus
from around the Greek world.

As preparations for the coming sea batties continued, so, too, did those for the
land war. Here the Persian advantage in numbers was even greater. Another
advantage was the variety of skills and weapons included within their ranks.

The Persian empire was enormous, stretching from Africa to what is today
Pakistan, and from every comer came battalions, each armed with a distinctive
weapon and the ability to use it. The Libyans were known for their javelins, the
Scythians for their bows and battleaxes, the Assyrians for their clubs of wood
and iron.

Matters were simpler on the Greek side.

While no one would claim that the Athenian fighting style was the same as, say,
the Spartan, Greek weaponry, armor, and basic strategy did not vary much from
city to city. There were some cavalry units (the Persians had more, of course),
but horses were expen sive, and since soldiers general ly paid for their own
accessories, only the rich could afford to fight on horseback. The ordinary
soldier was a foot soldier or, to use the Greek term, a hoplite. Armed with a
sharp sword, a long spear, and a heavy shield carried on the left arm, he was
most effective when in close ranks with his comrades. In a formation known as a
phalanx, troops marched shoulder to shoulder, so that one shield could do double
duty, protecting both its carrier and the man standing to his left. When the
soldiers in a phalanx were welltrained, the strategy was a good one --strong,
fast, and flexible. Yet, the phalanx was vulnerable to attack from the sides or
the rear. Aware of this, the Greeks chose to stand their ground at Thermopylae,
where the mountains would guard their flanks and prevent attacks from behind. Or
so they thought.

Oracle refers to the place where a person may consult a god or goddess, as well
as to the response of the deity. The oracle of Apollo at Delphi was one of the
best known and most widely respected in the Greek world.

Akropolis refers to the fortified area of a Greek city-state. It was located on
the highest part of the city and in a spot that was easily defended. In time,
the akropolis lost its military importance and became the site of religious
buildings. The best known is the Akropolis at Athens, spelled with a capital
"A".



FOR THE LOVE OF COUNTRY

Xerxes was no fool. His enormous invasion force had almost succeeded in
overrunning Greece when the allied Greek cities finally began to beat it back.
The turning point came at a mountain pass called Thermopylae, deep within the
Greek heartland. Because of its location, the battle of Thermopylae became a
great source of pride for the Greeks. This was not a struggle in some far-off
land for money or power, but a battle at home for freedom.

South of the great plain of Thessaly is a chain of mountains, not especially
high but rugged and inaccessible. At the far eastern end lies Thermopylae (which
means "hot gates"). It is within sight of the Gulf of Artemision, where Greek
and Persian forces were assembling. Although led by Eurybiades, a Spartan, the
Greek fleet owed its position in the gulf to General Themistokles. Themistokles
had been bribed by the residents of nearby Euboia to fight in the gulf rather
than withdraw. With the help of storms that sank a great number of Persian
ships, the outnumbered Greeks managed a draw. Thermopylae was a fine spot for
watching these events, and a fine spot for making a stand. But it was not a
perfect place.

Sparta and the other allies from the Peloponnesos, the southern half of the
Greek mainland, preferred the Isthmus of Corinth, a narrow strip of land that
connected the Peloponnesos with the rest of Greece. In the end, the Greeks
agreed on Thermopylae, and it was to be a small group of Spartans, led by their
king, Leonidas, who were to make the pass famous.

Why were so few men expected to beat back the entire Persian army? There are two
answers. First, it was the time of the Carneian festival and the Olympic Games,
events that were taken seriously by the Greeks. Rather than postpone or cancel
them altogether, the allies sent Leonidas and a small force that included
Spartans and soldiers from other Greek cities in advance. The allies reasoned
that the sight of a few brave men would be enough to hold the Persians until the
festivities were over.

There is also a second answer. In the middle of the battle, Leonidas sent many
of his soldiers home for reasons that have been debated ever since. To
understand the king's motives, we must look closely at the battle itself, and at
the culture of the Spartans.

The first three Persian assaults on Thermopylae were easily repelled. Xerxes and
his advisors could not understand why. Then, a Greek named Ephialtes, from the
nearby city of Malis, told the Persians about a secret path that led across the
mountains and would allow them to surround the Greeks. When Leonidas realized
that the Persians knew about the path, he dismissed almost all the allied
troops, keeping only his 300 Spartans and 700 men from the Greek cities of
Thespis and Thebes. Surely he took this action to save lives. But then why stay
at all? The odds against them were overwhelming, and death was inevitable. For a
Spartan, however, dying bravely for the homeland was considered the most
patriotic act a man could perform. It brought honor and glory both to his family
and his descendants. Leonidas and his men wanted this glory, and they won it
that day at Thermopylae.

Leonidas chose his band of 300 Spartans from the royal guard. All were in their
30s and each had a living son to carry on the family line should he die in
battle.



XERXES AND THE STRANGE GREEK FIRE

CHARACTERS

Artabanos: uncle of Xerxes and a trusted advisor

Artemisia: queen of Halikarnassos in Asia Minor; accompanied Xerxes on his
invasion of Greece; later honored by Xerxes for her courage during the battle at
Salamis

Demaratos: former king of Sparta who was unjustly forced to leave Greece;
found welcome at the court of Xerxes' father and later accompanied Xerxes on his
march to Greece

Persian Officer

Themistokles: Athenian statesman and general who led Greeks to victory at
Salamis

Xerxes: king of Persia

Narrator

TIME

480 B.C., during the Persian Wars

PLACE

Southern shores of the Hellespont Xerxes' tent

NARRATOR: The king is planning his invasion of Greece. He thinks that the bridge
he ordered made of cables and ropes across the mile-long stretch of water called
the Hellespont has been completed and awaits the crossing of his massive army.

PERSIAN OFFICER (prostrating [bowing low with his forehead to the ground]
himself before Xerxes]: Sire, I beg a thousand pardons! Have mercy! I am the
bearer of terrible news! Our bridge across the Hellespont has been swept away by
the storm!

XERXES (rising from his throne in a rage): Send the drivers to whip the wicked
Greek waters with 300 lashes! I, Xerxes, King of Kings, command it! Raise a tall
throne of marble upon yonder hill so I can watch my Greek engineers build a
second bridge across the Hellespont. Take 600 ships if need be and lash them
together. Moor them securely with strong anchors and ropes. Break down all the
docks and pull the timbers from every house and temple within two days' ride
from here. Use that wood to lay planks across the ships and make a floating
bridge. Allow for three open lanes so that trading ships may enter and leave the
sea beyond the Hellespont. Make sure the cables across these open spaces can be
tightened and loosened to bring together the ships forming the bridge or to
separate them.

PERSIAN OFFICERS: At once, Xerxes, King of Kings!

NARRATOR: Days later

XERXES (standing and pointing vigorously): I have done it! There are my
Ethiopians in their leopard skins and carrying long bows, my Arabs in their
white robes, my Lydians and my Armenians, my Indian and Assyrian archers, my
loyal Ionian Greeks with their bronze helmets and round shields, my hordes of
Medes and Persians. See my officers urge them on with the whip!

See my Immortals, my undefeated Royal Bodyguard. See the towering sacred horses
from Nisea, a district famous for its steeds. Make ready my chariot of gold and
ivory! Soon I will cross into Europe to join that land to Asia by my might and
my will!

NARRATOR: Xerxes strides back and forth, bursting with energy and pride.

XERXES: Now tell me, Artabanos, what you think of my invasion.

ARTABANOS: I am still full of doubts. I see two problems that are
insurmountable, that cannot be solved.

XERXES: You strange man! What two insignificant details could oppose this
invincible army and this great fleet of 1,000 ships!

ARTABANOS: The land and the sea. The land will be your enemy. There is not a
harbor large enough where you can anchor your fleet in safety. Even if you must
not fight every day, your men will know constant thirst and hunger as they march
deeper and deeper into a friendless, unknown land.

XERXES: Send me Demaratos!

NARRATOR: Demaratos approaches. He bows, but does not prostrate himself.

XERXES: Demaratos, you are a Greek from the strongest city in Greece. Answer me
this. Do you think your people will resist me? Even if they were united, they
would not stand a chance against my troops. But they are split, one against the
other in jealousy, and so, I believe, the situation is even worse for them.

DEMARATOS (laconically): Do you want flattery, sire, or the truth?

XERXES: The truth. Speak without fear.

DEMARATOS: I have never lied to you. You know that I was betrayed by the rulers
of the powerful Greek city of Sparta. They robbed me of my rank and kingdom.

The Greeks, to be sure, are all brave. Yet, now I speak to you of the Spartans.
Mind you, they will never surrender.

XERXES: Even if every other city surrenders?

DEMARATOS: The Spartans don't know the meaning of the word "surrender." XERXES:
But they are so few! DEMARATOS: Don't talk about numbers. Their law commands
them to conquer in battle or die, whatever the odds. One Spartan hoplite is just
one. Two are just two. But 300 Spartans in phalanx formation? The gods
themselves would quiver! The butcher's bill to kill the last Spartan may be too
high even for you, My King of Kings.

NARRATOR: There is an eerie moment of silence as the king and his courtiers
think about what Demaratos has just said. Xerxes is not angry. He just stares
with disbelief and then laughs.

XERXES: You proud Greeks exaggerate so! This Greek fire -- that is, this
fearlessness in battle you speak of -- is without substance. What moves men?
Fear and pleasure, gold and land! Nothing more. Ideas! Ha! What nonsense! Bring
me Queen Artemisia! Let's hope she has more sense!

NARRATOR: Demaratos exits. Beautiful Queen Artemisia of Halikarnassos enters.
Like Demaratos, she bows her head but remains standing before the Persian king.

XERXES: Ah, Queen Artemisia! You have a brave spirit to command your own navy.

Your son, they tell me, is one of your captains. Tell me of your ships, and tell
me what you think of my campaign.

ARTEMISIA: King Xerxes, I have provided for you the five fastest and strongest
ships in the world. All the Greeks in Asia support you. Persia has brought order
and has unified the empire with good roads. No one fears bandits will rob his
house or flocks. Your rule is firm but just. Loyalty to Xerxes is more than
sensible, it is a badge of honor! My people have never known such a long peace
as under your rule.

XERXES: Artabanos says I have to worry about only two problems -- the land and
the sea. Demaratos says that the Spartans are an immovable rock. What say you,
Queen Artemisia?

ARTEMISIA: The Spartan infantry is formidable, but by themselves they cannot win
this war.

XERXES: What will?

ARTEMISIA: Grain, oil, and ships. This war will be won on the sea -- not on
land.

XERXES: How?

ARTEMISIA: Destroy the Athenian fleet. Their ships are their wooden walls and
their lifeline to the trading ports of the Aegean and Mediterranean seas. And,
one more point -- the day will come when I shall lead my five ships into battle
against the Greeks. I will not always be around for you to ask advice. I can
handle my part of the battle, but can you?

XERXES (shouting): HOW DARE YOU! I AM THE KING OF KINGS! NO ONE TELLS ME WHAT TO
DO! IF I COMMAND THAT SOMETHING BE DONE, IT IS DONE -INSTANTLY!

ARTEMISIA (coolly): Quite right, sire. Yet, will it be the right choice, or will
you be provoked by Themistokles into a disaster?

NARRATOR: Xerxes disregards the warnings of his advisors and continues his
invasion of Greece. His victory at Thermopylae strengthens his confidence. But
Themistokles has a plan. According to the Greek historian Plutarch, Themistokles
sends his children's tutor Sikinnos to Xerxes. Although a Persian
prisoner-ofwar, Sikinnos is loyal to Themistokles. He tells the Persian king
that the Greek fleet fears the might of the Persians and will head for the far
channel of the Bay of Salamis and make a dash for freedom away from Persia's
navy. Unaware that the tutor is a spy, Xerxes commands his fleet to block the
channel and thereby seals his fate. Themistokles then orders the Greek ships to
trap the Persian fleet in the narrow confines of the channel. Xerxes, sitting
high on his silver throne above the bay, recognizes the trap set for his men.

NARRATOR: Aeschylos, one of Greece's most famous playwrights, fought at Salamis
and was an eyewitness to the great destruction of the day. In his play The
Persians, he wrote of the Persian despair:

PERSIANS: Crushed hulls lay upturned on the sea. ... Soon, in wild disorder, the
remnants of the Persian fleet, having lost all hope, retreated. But the Greeks
pursued. ... Fragments of wreckage split the heads of those who had survived as
if they were nets full of fish. Shrieks and moaning echoed across the water
until the cold night silenced them at last.

NARRATOR: The Athenian general Themistokles, on the other hand, rejoices and
addresses his troops.

THEMISTOKLES: Yes, we can thank the gods for our victory today. We drowned a sea
monster of the most terrible kind. But let us not forget King Leonidas of
Sparta. He marched north to the "Hot Gates" of Thermopylae with a small brave
band to face the world's greatest army. There the Spartans, obedient to their
code, fought and died to the last man to save the flower of the Greek army and
maybe Greece itself. I know not what the future holds for you or me, but the
bright glory of Salamis and Thermopylae will never be forgotten. And a little of
Leonidas will be with us in our travels, in our speeches in the Assembly, and in
our hearts.

NARRATOR: After his defeat at Salamis, Xerxes retreated to Persia. Sixty
thousand Persian troops under the leadership of Mardonios remained in Greece. In
479 B.C., the Spartan leader Pausanias completely destroyed the last remaining
Persian force at the battle of Plataia. As a result of these victories, the
Greeks preserved their freedom and gained a new confidence in themselves. This
confidence was reflected in a spectacular blossoming of the arts, sciences, and
literature, especially in Athens.

Tragically, class divisions, excessive regionalism, and Greek pride continued,
making any chance for Greek unity and internal peace impossible in the years
that followed the Persian Wars. Instead, the rivalry between Athens and Sparta
intensified until it erupted into civil war some 50 years after Salamis.



SALAMIS AN IMPORTANT MOMENT IN HISTORY

Although not the final encounter in the long war, the defeat of the Persian
fleet off the coast of Salamis proved to be the decisive battle in the struggle
of the Greeks against the Persians. There have been few events in history where
so much was at stake, both for the future of the Greeks and for Western
civilization as well.

Salamis also proved to be a turning point in the conduct of warfare for the
Greeks. Before 480 B.C., battles were fought on land with hoplites -- foot
soldiers wealthy enough to supply their own arms. As a result, only a small
portion of all Athenian citizens could afford to fight. For the naval battle at
Salamis, about 200 ships had to be manned, each carrying up to 170 oarsmen,
officers, and hoplites. Suddenly, there was a need for more men than Athens had
citizens. Thus, from all over Greece men came to staff these ships and work
together regardless of their social rank.

Had it not been for the victory at Salamis, the Persian army might eventually
have conquered and governed large parts of the Peloponnesos. Greeks in cities
where the population had gained political rights and the vote of the majority
decided issues feared that the Persians would reinstall an aristocracy
(government by a privileged upper class) or tyranny (government by an absolute
ruler).

With no contemporary images available, artists through the ages have relied on
records and their own imagination to re-create what happened at Salamis.
Athenians were afraid that the Persians would conquer the city and send the
population into slavery.

The victory over the Persians allowed the citizens of Athens to develop a new
culture that became the basis of Western civilization. In the years that
followed the war, developments in politics, the arts, architecture, science, and
philosophy provided the foundation for the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire in
the Middle East, and even our world today.

It is almost impossible to imagine what would have happened had the Greeks lost
to the Persians. Greek culture certainly would have continued to exist in one
form or another. For years before the conflict, architecture and the arts had
prospered in the Greek cities of Asia Minor that were under Persian rule. But
whether Greek culture would have developed the way it did in Athens is the
question. After Salamis, Athens built a new world of its own, with a distinctive
political system and society. Our democratic system today is a direct legacy of
those years.



EMPIRES WON AND LOST

When the dust finally settled on the battlefields of the Persian Wars, the
Greeks emerged victorious over the mighty Persian Empire. The great naval battle
at Salamis, followed by the Greek army's victory at Plataia, had made this
clear: The Greeks were superior, on land and on sea, to the forces of Xerxes.
Furthermore, Athens' role in the war had made it the chief Greek city-state.
Thus, while the Persians limped home to face shame and slow decline, the
Athenians leapt with boundless confidence into a golden age that has never been
equaled.

Athenian confidence was evident everywhere. Although they disdained the pomp and
extravagance of the "barbarians" they had just defeated, they worshiped beauty.
The Parthenon (the magnificent temple on the Akropolis that was dedicated to
Athena), the plays of Sophokles and Aristophanes, the sculpture of Pheidias -all
bear witness, even today, to the artistic vitality that defined this golden age.
Having defended freedom against tyranny, the Athenians embraced democracy and
their public institutions with greater fervor.

Yet, along with this confidence came ambition, and according to the Greek
historian Thukydides, "the desire for power that greed and ambition inspire." To
finance its massive public works, Athens used the funds 150 Greek cities
contributed to the treasury of the Delian League. This league was a confederacy
created by Athens for protection against Persia. At first, membership was
voluntary. Soon, however, Athens was forcing cities to join or to remain in the
league.

The Delian League became the Athenian Empire, and the Greek rallying cry of the
Persian War -- "Freedom!" --was replaced by that of "Empire!" Even Perikles,
whose name is synonymous with the democracy and glory of the age, believed that
the empire must be saved at any cost. Athens, he argued, was superior and should
be considered a model for the whole world.

Neighboring city-states, especially Sparta, came to fear the power and
increasing greed of Athens. Then, for 28 years, they fought each other in a
civil war known to history as the Peloponnesian War. Even with Sparta at its
back, Athens looked to enlarge its empire. With Athens' resources scattered,
Sparta took advantage of every weakness. When the Athenians looked to expand
their empire west into Sicily, an island off southern coast of Italy, the
Spartans watched for an opportunity. They saw one in Syracuse, the chief Greek
city in Sicily. The Spartan decision to aid Syracuse resulted in a disastrous
defeat for Athens.

The Persian Empire did not fare much better. Xerxes had left most of his army in
northern Greece after his defeat at Salamis. He probably intended to return with
a fresh fleet. However, the news of his army's defeat first at Plataia and then
at Mykale forced Xerxes to abandon such plans. Although the empire was still
intact, it steadily declined. Xerxes himself was assassinated. The years that
followed saw insurrections, murders, and weak leadership, all of which eroded
the central authority of the Persian Empire. Constant skirmishes with armies of
the Delian League further sapped its resources. When Alexander and his
empire-building armies marched into Persia in the 330s B.C., the empire breathed
its last.

In the swelling of pride and ambition that followed Athens' defeat of the
Persians, the Athenians were ruled less and less by their "golden mean," which
advised, "all things in moderation." Like the Persians, they had reached too far
and too high. Within 75 years of the victory at Salamis, they were defeated by
fellow Greeks -- the Spartans. Less than 100 years later, Alexander the Great,
from Macedonia to the north of Greece, conquered not just Athens and Sparta, but
all that once had been the Persian Empire as well. Such are the fortunes -- and
the lessons --of war.



ROCK CARVING AT BEHISTUN

Inch by inch, the young British officer crept along the narrow ledge of rock.
With one hand he steadied himself; with the other he clutched the paper he would
use to copy an inscription written in Old Persian.

Henry Creswicke Rawlinson (1810-1895), a British army officer assigned to an
outpost in the Kermanshah region of Persia (present-day Iran), spent his free
time riding horses and pursuing other athletic activities. But he also studied
ancient languages. One day in 1835, while riding the highway between the ancient
sites of Babylon and Ecbatana, he noticed the steep rock cliff at Behistun
(present-day Bisitun). Carved into this massive stone was a 1200-square-foot
relief sculpture dating back to the time of King Darius I of Persia. Rawlinson
was intrigued by the cuneiform inscriptions in three languages that surrounded
the characters in the carving. He knew that no one had completely "cracked the
code" to the Old Persian language. Because the rock at Behistun contained the
longest known text of Old Persian, deciphering it could contribute new knowledge
about this ancient civilization.

Since the sculpture was about 300 feet above the ground, getting close to the
inscriptions posed a major problem. After the carvings had been completed,
Darius had ordered the workers to shear off any rocky steps near it to stop
future vandals. Now, 23 centuries later, Rawlinson struggled to find a way to
get to the smooth rock.

Near the Old Persian text was a very narrow foothold on which Rawlinson could
stand. What he saw was breathtaking. There was King Darius towering over kings
who had rebelled and whom he had subdued. The kings' hands are tied behind their
backs.

Watching over the scene is the image of the Persian god Ahura Mazda. The written
text that fills the spaces around the figures gives details of Darius'
conquests. It also notes that Darius gives this god from the Zoroastrian
religion credit for his victory.

For two years Rawlinson labored on the Persian inscriptions. After copying the
symbols from his rocky perch, he began the hard work of translation, which took
another eight years. By comparing the words with Greek, he succeeded in
deciphering some proper names. Then he went on to translate the rest of the
text.

Inscriptions in two other languages -- Elamite and Babylonian -- had also been
carved on the rock. Rawlinson copied them in 1844 and 1847. Because these were
in harder-to-reach places, he had to rig a series of ropes and ladders to
approach the rock face. Later, when Rawlinson wrote about the experience, he
recalled that he was so interested in what he was doing that he did not even
think of the danger. The final section of the inscriptions was in such a remote
place that he hired a small Kurdish boy to complete the task. Using pegs sunk
into the rock face and rope made into a seat, the boy was able to copy the last
of the symbols.

Even though he was neither a professional archaeologist nor a his torian,
Rawlinson earned the respect of other translators. Some, however, questioned the
Babylonian translation, which was the most difficult of the three. Even
Rawlinson admitted that he was frustrated by the ancient language.

As a test, the Royal Asiatic Society of England invited Rawlinson and three
scholars to submit translations of a Babylonian text. When they were compared,
there was little difference between them.

The Behistun rock carving, because of its significance in deciphering the
languages of the Middle East, was as important as the Rosetta Stone. Rawlinson's
linguistic skill and athletic daring made possible the translation both of
Darius' inscription and of other ancient texts written in cuneiform.

Cuneiform refers to the wedge-shaped characters that form a system of writing
used in ancient Akkadia, Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia.

The Zoroastrian religion was founded around 1500 B.C. by a Persian priest named
Zarathustra (known today as Zoroaster). Folowers believe in two divine forces: a
good god, known as Ahura Mazada or Ormazd, and an evil god, Angra Mainyu or
Ahriman. The two continually wage war against each other. Today, folowers of
Zoroastrianism, known as Parsis or Parsees, live mostly in Iran and India.

The Rosetta Stone was uncovered in 1799 near Rosetta, Egypt. More than 2,000
years old, this ancient Egyptian tablet bore three inscriptions, all of which
were the same passage. One inscription was written in Egypian hieroglyphs, a
second in Egyptian demotic (a cursive script), and the third in Greek. The Greek
text provided the key to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs.