MUSINGS

Excerpted from Hiram Bingham's account of the day of his discovery of Machu
Picchu

Hiram Bingham would never forget that "sight" -- nor would the world. Newspapers
and news reports quickly carried the story, and people began to ask about the
builders and their customs and beliefs. Inca was not a "lost" civilization at
the time. Other Inca finds had been discovered, but many questions were still
unanswered. Today, archaeologists and historians continue to explore the areas
in Peru where the Incas are known to have lived.

Begin your own exploration by turning the page and stepping back in time to the
rule of Pachacuti. While Inca ideas and practices may seem primitive at first,
you'll soon realize that they were a fairly advanced society with such efficient
farming practices and health remedies that today's scientists are re-studying
them. You'll read, too, about their road system, which could actually challenge
ours. Then, join Dr. Johan Reinhard in his search for Inca ice mummies.

So, let the journey begin.

During the summer of 1999, 18 members of the Hobbs family journeyed from their
homes in the United States to. Peru to walk the Camino Inca ("Inca Trail") from
KM (kilometer) 82 to Machu Picchu. Use the map on pages 4 and 5 to follow their
trail, and view their photos throughout the issue to see firsthand the land of
the ancient Incas.



THE WORLD OF THE INCAS

Over 5,000 people annually hike the 33 km (just over 20 miles) ancient inca
trail from the Urubamba River to Machu Picchu. This trail runs across
mountainsides, through a tropical cloud forest, along steep cliffs, and over log
bridges held together with nails and wire. Hikers carry their own belongings or
hire a guide and porters to assist them. Much of the trail is now a national
park, and the government is restoring Inca ruins, making campsites, and
repairing the trail.



THE STONES OF MACHU PICCHU

On a steamy July afternoon in 1911, American explorer Hiram Bingham pushed aside
a tangle of undergrowth and stared. For long weeks he had scoured the sweltering
jungles of eastern Peru for clues. A casual remark from a native farmer ... the
hint of a trail long unused ... a glimpse of pale stone through the trees ...
all were "ghosts" of an ancient Inca city lost among the soaring peaks of the
Andes Mountains long ago. Now, some two thousand feet above the rushing Urubamba
River, Bingham was at last face-to-face with the find he had been seeking.

"Suddenly I found myself confronted With the walls of ruined houses built of the
finest quality of Inca stonework," he recorded later. "It was hard to see them,
for they were partly covered with trees and moss, the growth of centuries."
Bingham stared in amazement at the "walls of white granite ashlars [stone
building blocks] carefully cut and exquisitely fitted together." The larger
stones appeared to weigh 10 to 15 tons. How had they been moved? Did they stay
together without the application of mortar?

Bingham, his nine-year-old native guide, and his military escort swarmed over
the ruins. The explorer gaped in awe at a huge altar carved from the
mountainside itself--the intihuatana, or "hitching post of the sun." He marveled
at El Torreon--a graceful semicircular "tower." A pair of three-sided temples
with triple windows held him "spellbound." Bingham methodically snapped photos,
scribbled notes, and sketched maps. All the while his hopes rose. Had he found
it? Could these long-forgotten ruins be the remains of Vilcabamba, the last
capital of the Inca?

Bingham was not the first white man to examine the Inca civilization. After its
takeover by the Spanish conqueror Francisco Pizarro in the 1530s, men like Pedro
Cieza de Leon, a soldier, and Father Bernabe Cobo, a Jesuit missionary, recorded
their impressions of Inca rituals, social structure, and engineering. Bingham's
fascination had begun as a professor of Latin American history at Yale
University in New Haven, Connecticut. The present expedition had been funded by
his former classmates, who wanted to solve a 400-year-old mystery: the location
of Vitcos, or Vilcabamba. This city was the secret stronghold built by the Inca
ruler Manco II after he fled the Spanish Conquest in 1535.

Bingham now believed that he had found it--but not for long. Only a few days
later, he came upon a larger set of ruins, some 60 miles away. This site,
Bingham decided, must really be Vilcabamba. His earlier discovery was dubbed
Machu Picchu, after the mountain over whose ridge it sprawled. Soon afterward,
Bingham uncovered a third set of ruins, called Vilcabamba Viejo ("the old"), at
Espiritu Pampa.

The following summer, Bingham returned to Machu Picchu with an expedition
co-sponsored by the National Geographic Society. Careful digging around its
ruins yielded scores of Inca graves, some stone dishes, and several bronze
implements. Tantalizing clues, yes, but intriguing questions remained. What Inca
chief had built Machu Picchu? When? Why? Bingham himself died uncertain as to
which of his three discoveries had been the "lost" Inca capital.

Despite the mysteries surrounding it, Machu Picchu is recognized as one of the
world's great archaeological wonders. Nestled in a breathtaking natural setting,
the city's lasting beauty comes from the careful blending of its striking
architecture with its mountaintop environment. Each year, thousands of
fascinated visitors come to the "city in the clouds" to look, to reflect, and to
wonder.



THE INCAS

Like the Andean peaks crowned by clouds, the origins of the Incas are obscured
by the mists of legend. Scientists believe that tribal ancestors of the Incas
migrated to the Americas from Asia thousands of years ago. Much later, around
A.D. 1200, groups of them settled in the Cuzco valley of Peru. Legend has it
that Manco Capac, reputedly the first Grand Inca, established the location of
his capital city by plunging a magical golden staff into the earth--which
promptly swallowed it.

In its history, this remarkable civilization--called Tahuantinsuyu, "Land of
Four Quarters"--showed a genius for nearly everything. Though it lacked a
writing system, it still devised a highly organized government. The Incas never
utilized the wheel for transportation, yet they engineered an advanced network
of roads, tunnels, and bridges. They also demonstrated a talent for conquest. In
their turn, Roca Yupanqui, Mayta Capac, and other Inca leaders swept through
neighboring regions, adding tribes and territories to the realm. By the end of
Viracocha's reign early in the 1400s, the empire stretched more than 2,000 miles
along the Andes mountain range and included Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and
surrounding areas. It remained only for Viracocha's son and grandson, Pachacuti,
to bring the empire to its summit of glory.

Tahuantinsuyu also translates as "Kingdom of the Four Regions of the Universe."



FROM LEGEND TO HISTORY: THE REIGN OF PACHACUTI

When the Chancas threatened to overthrow Viracocha Inca, the eighth ruler fled
in fear, taking with him his eldest son and intended heir. But the youngest son
refused to leave Cuzco. He alone of the seven royal princes dared to defend the
Inca homeland, saying that he "would rather die than agree to live in bondage."

So began a decisive confrontation between the Incas and the Chancas over control
of the Cuzco Valley, as described by Juan Jose de Betanzos, who based his
Narrative of the Incas on stories he heard from his Inca in-laws. With divine
help, the prince won the battle and became the ninth Inca, taking as his ruling
name Pachacuti, meaning "Earthshaker," "Cataclysm," or "He Who Remakes the
World."

Pachacuti is the first Inca ruler historians are reasonably certain existed. One
early chronicler says that he ruled between 1438 and 1471, but no one knows his
exact dates because the Incas did not keep such records. Nor do we know what
kind of a person he was. Some sources depict him as wise and benevolent, others
as brutal and cruel. What jumps out from all the accounts, however, is his great
energy, bravery, and military skill, and his genius for organization.

After overcoming the Chancas, Pachacuti embarked on an aggressive campaign to
extend Inca rule. Marching against his enemies southward to Callao, he claimed
Inca dominance over the vast pasturelands around Lake Titicaca. He then sent his
generals north and west to conquer isolated fertile valleys in the Andean
highlands and wealthy kingdoms on the coastal plains. They even ventured
eastward into the mountainous edges of the Amazon rain forest.

None of this would have been possible without Pachacuti's organizing talents. He
repaired, connected, and expanded old roads into an efficient network that
allowed armies and messengers to speed from one end of the realm to the other.
Along these roads, he constructed storage sites and stocked them with food,
weapons, blankets, and clothing for his troops. Nearby he built tambos, large
stone houses that served as temporary barracks for soldiers on the move. He
staffed his armies and construction crews by instituting the mita, a tax
able-bodied men paid by doing part-time work for the state. Such work was done
on a rotating basis and involved cultivating government fields, carrying out
public construction projects, and serving in the army.

A skilled politician, Pachacuti used both rewards and stern discipline.
According to the Spanish chronicler Pedro Cieza de Leon, "so compelling were his
words that with them and the gifts he bestowed, he won [conquered peoples] to
his friendship and service." He also pleased them by "attiring himself in each
village in the garb used by the natives" and by letting local leaders retain
their positions.

People who opposed his rule suffered harsh reprisals. Whole communities might be
massacred or forcibly removed from their homelands to places where they could be
more easily controlled.

To make sure everyone was doing his duty, he appointed inspectors, who acted as
his eyes and ears, and census-takers, who kept track of the population and the
work people did for the state. When he ran out of uncles, brothers, and cousins
to run his government, he called on non-Inca nobles of proven loyalty, declaring
them "Incas by privilege." He created a clear chain of command from the lowest
overseer to the provincial governors.

Although he delegated authority when necessary, Pachacuti was a hands-on ruler.
Betanzos pictures him personally measuring the site for a new temple, selecting
stones at the quarry, and making clay models for his ambitious reconstruction of
Cuzco. In his spare time, he disguised himself as a commoner and walked around
observing how his subjects lived and getting ideas for improvements. He had
stonelined channels built for Cuzco's two rivers to reduce flooding. He
increased irrigation and terraced hillsides to provide more arable land.

Pachacuti also devised ways of unifying his multi-ethnic realm. He made Quechua
the official language of the state, and brought the sons of conquered rulers to
Cuzco to learn Inca customs. He moved communities around, sending loyal subjects
as mitimas to settle outlying areas. He used religion to enhance his image.
Declaring himself "Son of the Sun," he had temples built to the sun god Inti
everywhere he conquered. He instituted festivals in his honor, the most solemn
being held in June at the winter solstice. These festivals, as the Spanish-Inca
writer Garcilaso de la Vega noted, combined "the worship of their god, the sun,
and the veneration of their king, the Inca."

The legends about Pachacuti that the early chroniclers used as sources probably
exaggerated the accomplishments of this hero. All the conquests, building
projects, and laws attributed to him may not be his. But clearly he was a
dynamic leader whose organizational abilities paved the way for imperial
expansion. In this, he lived up to his adopted name: "He Who Remakes the World."

NOTE: In the Southern Hemisphere, where Peru is located, the seasons are the
opposite of ours in the Northern Hemisphere.

Juan Jose do Betanzos was born in Spain, but later traveled to Peru and was
hired by the Spanish colonial government as a Quechua interpreter and
translator. He married the widow of the executed Inca leader Atahualpa.



TOPA INCA

*
Pachacuti's son, Topa Inca, was already a military leader in his teens, and
later became the principal commander of his father's armies. Some sources say
that Pachacuti made Topa Inca his co-ruler, or even abdicated in his favor.

*
During his reign as the tenth ruler, Topa Inca stretched Inca domains northward
to Quito and southward to the Maule River in Chile. Although the Inca chronicler
Huaman Poma de Ayala wrote that "making war was his chief occupation," Topa Inca
is also credited with building the fortress of Sacsahuaman, founding
administrative centers to bring Inca government and culture to conquered areas,
and developing the decimal system that grouped people into units of 10, 100,
1,000, and 10,000.

*
Topa Inca's son, Huayna Capac, further consolidated and extended Inca rule. When
Huayna Capac died, civil war broke out between his sons, Huascar and Atahualpa.
The political division that resulted helped the Spaniards defeat the Inca
Empire.



WHO'S WHO IN INCA SOCIETY

The Sapa Inca or "supreme ruler" led Inca society. Advised by nobles and the
auguries (predictions of the future through special signs) of priests, the Inca
made all the laws and appointments to office, including selecting which of his
sons was the most capable to succeed him.

The Coya was the Inca's principal wife, as well as his sister or half-sister.
They were wed when he received the mascapaycha, or royal tassel. The Inca had
many wives, but only a son of the Coya could become Sapa Inca.

Orejones or "Big Ears" was what Spanish conquistadors called the ethnic Incas
with their large ear spools. These aristocrats provided the military and
administrative leadership of Tahuantinsuyu. After Pachacuti rebuilt Cuzco, only
they and their servants lived in the triangle formed by the two rivers and the
fortress Sacsahuaman (sahk sah wah MAHN).

Incas by Privilege were "honorary Incas" who, because of their loyalty to Inca
rule, held important posts in the government. They enjoyed many of the same
privileges as the Inca nobility.

Curacas were the principal lords of individual villages. When the population was
organized into decimal units, the head of 100 households was a pachaca curaca;
of 1,000 households, a guaranga curaca. Women caracas were called capullanas.

Mamacona were "chosen women," trained from childhood as either priestesses or
special servants of the Inca. They wove vicuna wool into fine cloth worn only by
the Inca and the Coya, and prepared chicha, a beer drunk at religious festivals.
Some became the Inca's secondary wives or married important caracas.

Artisans who made luxury goods of gold, silver, fine pottery, and feathers
formed a special class of state workers. The Incas used their products as gifts
to win and reward loyal supporters and as decorations for temples and palaces.

Hatun Runa were the majority of people living under Inca rule. They lived in
ayllus, communities of related people where the curaca assigned work by age
groups and allotted each family enough farmland to support itself. Each adult
male paid taxes by working for the state--the system known as mita. Other
commoners were herders, fishermen, and craftspeople who made ordinary goods.

Yanacona were individuals who did not belong to an ayllu and worked full-time at
a variety of tasks for the Inca, the Coya, or the religious establishment. A few
members of this serving class enjoyed high social status and were appointed
caracas by the Inca.



THE CITY OF CUZCO

Inca legend claims that sometime in A.D. 1200, the Sun God, Inti, sent his son,
Manco Capac, along with his sister-wife, Mama Ocllo, to earth, destination
unknown, armed only with a golden rod. They were to thrust this rod into the
ground, and where it was swallowed up by the earth, they were to build a city
and draw people to it, welding them into an empire to spread the worship of the
sun.

After many unsuccessful attempts with the rod, the couple reached a fertile
valley that was some 20 miles long and surrounded by snow-capped mountains. When
Manco Capac touched the earth with the golden rod, it disappeared into the
ground. He knew then that this was the promised land -- the Valley of Cuzco.

The Incas were a strong, proud people who believed life was a struggle in which
one either conquered or was conquered. Their leaders, the Sapa Incas, were able
men who knew how to take advantage of others. Eventually, by the year 1438, they
had control of the entire Valley of Cuzco.

In this year, the ninth Sapa Inca, Pachacuti, began to rebuild Cuzco and make it
a chief city in the Inca world.

Drawing his inspiration from the layouts and monumental stonework of other
cities, Pachacuti restored the palaces of former emperors and built a
magnificent one for himself called the Cassana. He also designed and built the
Accla Huasi, the house of the 4,000 Chosen Women of the Sun God.

Central Cuzco was roughly given the shape of a crouching puma or mountain lion
(see illustration above), a symbol of strength and power. Only royalty or the
highest nobility were allowed to live in this area. At the puma's head, the
immense fortress of Sacsahuaman was built into the steep-sided hill that
overlooked Cuzco. Sacsahuaman contained an arsenal, a temple, parade grounds,
vaults, reservoirs, and the throne of the Sapa Inca.

Coricancha, or Temple of the Sun, was personally marked out by Pachacuti, and
lay at the puma's hindquarters. The heart of the puma was the main square,
called Huacapata (WAH kah PAH tah). This was the "Holy Plaza" where the daily
rituals and grand seasonal ceremonies and festivals were held.

One of the festivals held at Huacapata commemorated the city's founding. The
festival coincided with celebrations marking the arrival of spring. First, the
Sapa Inca hailed the Sun God. Next, royal princes chased evil spirits out of the
city. Later, ritual bathing eliminated any remaining evil. Everyone danced and
sang all night. People also rubbed their bodies and houses with sanko (corn
paste) to ward off illness and weakness.

The palaces and temples of Pachacuti's Cuzco and of Inca cities built thereafter
were magnificent, huge structures. All were constructed of massive stone blocks.
No mortar of any kind was used to hold them in place. The stones were so
carefully cut and fitted together that even today a knife blade cannot be
inserted between them. For some walls, blocks of many different sizes and shapes
were fitted together like a puzzle--all interlocked perfectly.

The construction of these buildings was an amazing accomplishment. Some of the
gigantic stones in Cuzco's buildings, such as those used in Sacsahuaman's
foundation, weighed as much as 126 tons apiece. To transport these stones from
places as far away as 21 miles, thousands of men used only wooden rollers and
ropes made of leather or plant fibers.

At the construction site, the stones were hauled up earthen ramps, and then
moved into position with the help of bronze crowbars. Before final placement,
they had to be shaped to fit exactly with the surrounding blocks. Since the
Incas had no iron tools, they pounded the blocks into shape using hard river
stones and lots of strength and patience.

The efforts of the Inca architects and stoneworkers were not in vain. Today,
many Inca buildings still stand--all witnesses to an empire of unforgettable
greatness.

Cuzco means "navel" in the language of the Incas.



THE GRANDEST ROADS IN THE WORLD

Were the Inca roads more impressive than those built by the Romans? Here's how
Cieza de Leon, a soldier who traveled the Inca roads in 1547, described them.

The Incas constructed the grandest road that there is in the world as well as
the longest. I believe that since the history of man there has been no other
account of such grandeur as is to be seen on this road that passes over deep
valleys and lofty mountains, by snowy heights, over falls of water, through the
living rock, and along the edges of tortuous torrents.

The Incas built two roads the length of the country. The Royal Road went through
the highlands for a distance of 3,250 miles, while the Coastal Road followed the
seacoast for 2,520 miles. These roads provided a vital communication link, and
kept the empire united. In case of an insurrection or an invasion, the armies
could use the roads to get to the area quickly to suppress the uprising. The
roads also made it easier to trade goods. In short, the roads symbolized the
power the Inca rulers had over their subjects.

Road surfaces were not paved, but made from a hard-packed mixture of clay,
pebbles, and maize leaves. Many had walls along the sides that kept soldiers and
travelers from stepping off into the fields and destroying the crops.

Impressive bridges spanned the rivers. One of the most famous crossed the
Apurimac River, and was 40 feet wide and 148 feet long. Travelers crossing it
swayed 118 dizzying feet above the river. Twisted rope cables as thick as a
person's body held up the walkway, which was made of woven lianas (tropical
vines) covered with branches. The nearby villagers who maintained the road and
the bridge had to replace the cables every two years.

Since the Incas had no wheeled vehicles, people and animals carried goods along
the roads. People put their loads in a cloak or tied them on their backs. In
high places along the road, the Incas placed apachetas, conical heaps of small
rocks. As travelers passed by, they placed stones that represented their load on
the apacheta. By doing this, they left their weariness behind in the stone.

The Incas used one of the first domesticated animals, the llama, to carry goods.
Relatives of the camel, llamas are well suited to working in rugged terrain. A
llama can carry about 80 pounds, eats what it finds along the road, and can go
for four or five days without water. Like their camel cousins, llamas spit when
they are upset and angry.

Even after the Spanish introduced horses, the Incas continued to use llamas, the
so-called "trucks of the Andes." The Incas found their native animals had more
endurance and were more surefooted than horses.



THE INCA MAIL SYSTEM

*
The messenger system of the Incas was extremely efficient. Small huts, or
chozas, stood every mile and a half along the entire length of the roads. Four
Indian chasqui lived in each of these huts. All day, every day, two of them
crouched at the doorway, one looking in each direction to spot a chasqui from
the next hut bringing a message. When a messenger came near, the chasqui came
out and ran alongside him. As the two ran together, the one with the message
relayed his information to the new runner. The new chasqui then ran as fast as
he could to the next hut on the road, while the exhausted man rested before
returning to his hut.

*
Using this relay system, a message could be carried 250 miles a day. Information
went between Quito and Cuzco, a distance of 1,250 miles, in five days. Runners
averaged a six-and-a-half-minute mile, and worked for fifteen days at a time.
Sometimes the messengers even delivered freshly caught fish to the king.



FUN WITH WORDS

WORD STORIES

Balsa

In the 1500s, Spanish sailors off the coast of South America noticed how well
the rafts used by the natives floated. That is, they sat high on the surface,
unlike theirs that settled into the water when any weight was put on board. To
name the tree logs that the natives lashed together with vines to make the
rafts, the Spanish used their noun balsa, meaning "raft" or "float." Today,
"balsa" still refers to the tropical American tree with extremely light but
strong wood.

WORD ORIGINS

Poncho

The Araucanian Indians in Chile and Argentina, just south of the area inhabited
by the Inca, used this term to refer to a cloak that was made of wool and had a
hole in the middle for one's head. The Spanish borrowed the term and the cloak.
Americans then adopted the term in the 1800s.

QUECHUA WORDS IN ENGLISH

Guano

The Quechua word huanu refers to the "dung" or "droppings" of sea birds found on
the islands just off the coast of Peru. This manure has been used as a natural,
rich fertilizer. The term "guano" is the English adaptation of huanu and is used
to refer to any natural or artificial fertilizer that resembles it.

Alpaca

The alpaca is a domesticated (that is, tamed and not wild) South American llama
that has long, black or brown silky wool. It is woven into fine, expensive
cloth. The name "alpaca" is actually derived from allpaca, a word the Aymara
people, who are believed to have predated the Incas, used for the same animal.

Llama

This South American cud-chewing, four-footed animal without humps on its back is
used as a pack-animal and as a source of wool, meat, and milk.

Quinoa

This plant with small green flowers and edible seeds has been cultivated in the
Andes for centuries. The Spanish are responsible for this spelling, as they
adapted the Quechua word for the plant, kinwa, to "quinoa" (KEEN wha).

Vicuna

"Vicuna" is the Spanish adaptation of the Quechua word wikuna. Vicuna refers to
a small llama found in the wild in the Andes that has shaggy wool that is softer
and finer than sheep's wool.

Quechua is the language spoken today by the South American Indians living in the
highlands of the Andes Mountains from Ecuador to Bolivia. Quechua is also the
language spoken by the Incas.


THE EXPRESSIVE ART OF INCA TEXTILES

Weaving was the most important Inca craft. The Incas adopted the textile
techniques of earlier peoples like the Paracas of Peru's southern coast, whose
textiles were among the finest ever loomed. In turn, the Incas passed their
knowledge down through succeeding generations.

The Incas used geometric motifs more than figures of animals and people. Some
experts believe that the stepped designs represented land patterns seen from
mountaintops. Others think they symbolized the union of earth and sun.

In the lowlands, the Incas grew cotton for lightweight clothing suited to the
hot, coastal climate. In the cold mountain highlands, llama (left, inset),
alpaca, and vicufia herds were rounded up and sheared once a year to provide
wool for warm clothes.

Rulers and nobles wore the choicest cloth of soft, silky vicuna wool. Inca
women, who often spun thread while walking, wove fabric for clothing from awaka
(thick, white alpaca hair) on backstrap looms. One end of the loom was tied
around a tree or pole and the other end went around the weaver's back. The
weaver leaned against the strap to keep the warp threads taut while weaving with
the weft threads. Men wove blankets and bags from llama wool, which was too
coarse and greasy for clothing, and also braided it into ropes and animal
halters.

The Incas used some wool in its natural gray and brown tones. They also dyed
threads in brilliant red, blue, and gold colors obtained from plants, seashells,
and dried insects. Sometimes embroidery was sewn on cloth to make it more
beautiful.

Feathers from parrots, macaws, and other brightly colored Amazon jungle birds
were used to decorate clothing and headdresses. The quills were bent to attach
the feathers to the garments. Gold, called "Sweat of the Sun," and silver,
"Tears of the Moon," also added to the elegance of special festival and
religious dress.

Inca clothing included tunics, ponchos, shawls or capes, and wrap-around skirts,
as well as shoulder bags. A man wore a tunic and belt over a loincloth, and
added a cape in cold weather.

Sandals were made of llama hide. Women wore a long tunic and belt with a shawl
fastened with tupu, pins made of copper, silver, or gold (depending on their
status in society). Nobles wore the same type of clothing, but it was woven of
more valuable vicufia wool. In Inca society, the higher the wearer's status, the
richer the clothing.

Textiles were also offered to the gods in times of trouble. Inca textile
fragments, spindles, cactus spine and copper needles, and ceramics with scenes
of weaving have been found at Machu Picchu and other archaeological sites. The
Center for Traditional Textiles of Cuzco is working today to preserve Inca
weaving traditions as part of Peru's rich cultural heritage.

Warp refers to the threads that run lengthwise in a loom and are crossed by the
weft, the threads carried back and forth by the shuttle.



DESIGN YOUR OWN PONCHO

When you look at Inca textiles, you can see that they liked squares and
triangles. They also liked bright colors. You can make a poncho, a simple
slip-on top, in a design that an inca would love.

YOU NEED:

• sheet of white shelf paper, approximately 4.8 inches long (should cover
your chest and back)

• scissors

• wide tape

• pencil

• watercolors or colored markers

Directions

1 Fold the paper in half widthwise and cut an opening in the center large enough
to slip the paper over your head.

2 Carefully tape the edges around the opening so that it won't tear.

3 With the pencil, outline designs on the paper. Use the examples shown on these
pages, or in the illustrations throughout the issue, or create your own.

4 Color your designs with watercolors or colored markers.

For a Cloth or Cardboard Poncho:

If you can sew, or there is someone who can help you stitch the sides and hem,
you could make a poncho out of a piece of plain cloth like muslin, and draw the
pattern with colored markers.

You can also make a poncho out of cardboard. Attach yarn to each upper corner,
and hang it on the wall of your room.



TURMOIL AND DESTRUCTION

When Huayna Capac became the eleventh Sapa Inca in 1493, the empire was at the
height of its power. Around 1525, Huayna Capac died in an epidemic that also
claimed the life of his son and appointed heir, Ninan Cuyachi. Archaeological
evidence suggests that the two royals, like many other Incas, fell victim to
smallpox, a disease European explorers had introduced to the area and against
which the Incas had no resistance. The Inca nobles in Cuzco proclaimed Huascar,
another son of Huayna and his principal wife, the Coya, the new Sapa Inca. Not
everyone, however, agreed with this decision.

The Inca army, which was stationed in Quito, supported Atahualpa, Huayna's
favorite son. Quito was also the place where Huayna had spent the latter years
of his life, and many members of the royal court lived there. Aware that Huascar
considered him a rival, Atahualpa remained in Quito for several years and
avoided any contact with him. When Huascar demanded Atahualpa's presence in his
court. Atahualpa chose to send ambassadors in his place, but Huascar ordered
them killed. Huascar then sent an army to bring Atahualpa to Cuzco. This act led
to civil war.

After several bloody battles, Atahualpa's generals captured Huascar, defeated
his armies, and triumphantly entered Cuzco. To prevent further oppostion to his
rule, Atahualpa ordered Huascar's family, his generals, and thousands of
supporters killed.

It was during this period of chaos that the Spanish conqueror Francisco Pizarro
entered Inca territory with approximately 170 men. At the time, Atahualpa was
traveling south to Cuzco for the Sapa Inca ceremony. On November 16, 1532,
Atahualpa, accompanied by thousands of Inca warriors, entered the Inca city of
Cajamarca for a pre-arranged meeting with Pizarro.

Within minutes, the Spanish had killed Atahualpa's honor guard, taken Atahualpa
captive, and slaughtered thousands of Inca warriors. The Spanish had the
advantage of guns, cannons, metal armor, and steel swords. The Incas had only
battle axes, slings, cotton-padded armor, and arrows. Following Pizarro's
orders, the Spanish imprisoned Atahualpa and, after demanding and receiving tons
of gold and silver, they strangled him in August of 1533.

The devastating destruction continued as the Spanish looted the country for
treasure. For years, Inca resistance and infighting among the Spanish themselves
slowed Spanish domination, but in 1572, the last reigning Inca, Tupac Amaru, was
captured, tried, and beheaded.



AGRICULTURAL EXPERTISE ... IN THE ANDES

As the Incas expanded their rule throughout the Andes, they gained control of
areas unlike their own steep peaks and valleys. There were hills of lush rain
forest to the east and cold, flat deserts to the west. The distinctive climate
and altitude of each region prevented the Incas from using the same farming
methods throughout the empire.

Instead, the Incas had to find local solutions. This they did, often combining
their own engineering abilities with the ideas of experienced locals. In the
western desert, for example, they quickly added to an existing network of
irrigation canals, thereby increasing the amount of land suitable for planting.
In a similar area on the other side of the mountains--the high, dry plain called
the Altiplano--the Incas seized upon a local technique and made it their own:
The farmers of the Altiplano used the soil excavated from their network of
crisscrossing canals to raise the level of the fields in between. This improved
drainage, and the cold air so dangerous to crops was pushed down off the fields
and into the deep ditches of the canals by warmer air. Meanwhile, in the steep
highlands at home, the Incas created flat, easily worked fields through a
process known as terracing. The first step was the construction of a series of
stone walls across the slope of the chosen mountain. Next, the area above each
wall was packed with fertile soil. Many of these terraces are still in use
today.

In contrast to the Incas' skillful construction of new fields, their methods of
planting were relatively unsophisticated. Without draft animals -- that is,
without horses or oxen to pull their plows, the Incas had to plant by hand,
using only three tools: a footplow for turning the soil, a club for breaking up
large clumps of earth, and a hoe for pulling earth over the planted seeds.

At harvest time, Inca ingenuity was again apparent. Of the crops grown
regularly, the most important were corn and potatoes. The second of these could
be kept for long periods through a clever process of freezedrying. In winter,
potatoes (as well as meat and, occasionally, fish) were softened with water,
then mashed and left outside overnight to freeze. As the morning sun thawed the
mixture, the water would evaporate, drying and preserving food.

The variety of Inca food is remarkable. In addition to the staples of corn and
potatoes, farmers grew beans, squash, tomatoes, chili peppers, avocadoes,
peanuts, a nutritious grain called quinoa, and several edible roots like manioc
and oca. That the Incas recognized the value of such variety is another sign of
their farming expertise. Planting and replanting only one crop soon exhausts the
soil, while a rotation of different crops in the same field ensures a healthy
mix of nutrients. And with many crops from which to choose, a farmer was able to
select those most suitable for his own particular fields.

The Inca Empire benefited from this diversification as well, for it was unlikely
that every crop would fail in a given year: While a heat wave might harm the
corn crop, for example, it might aid the tomato crop. Therefore, it is not
surprising to find the central administration doing what it could to encourage
the development of new crops. Similarly, farmers throughout the empire were
encouraged to plant in more than one area to minimize the impact of local
disasters. This technique did not originate with the Incas, nor did it end with
them. A farmer in the Andes today is still willing to walk for hours to reach a
single field higher up in the mountains or deep in the valley below.

It was the Incas, however, who took this technique to a logical, if disturbing,
extreme. If a village suffered a poor harvest several years in a row, its
inhabitants became candidates for a program of forced migration. In this
process, known as mitima, every villager would be required to move permanently
to an area judged more fertile. Sometimes this new location was hundreds of
miles away. Whatever the distance, it is hard to image an act of mitima that
would not have inflicted severe physical and emotional damage upon the migrants.
Imagine, for example, an elderly man, one who had spent his life in the cold,
dry air of the mountains, suddenly forced down to the steaming jungle. The soil
there would be more fertile, surely, but how could he work it? How could he
survive in that strange and terrible heat? These are important questions to
ponder, even as we marvel at the agricultural skill that sustained the Incas'
great empire.



CHRONICLERS OF THE INCAS

*
Since the Incas had no written language, they left no written records. Following
the conquest by Pizarro, however, several accounts--by Spaniards and by Incas
who had learned Spanish--were written about the Kingdom of the Sun. One of the
most important Inca writers is Garcilaso de la Vega. The son of an Inca princess
and the Spanish governor of Cuzco, de la Vega was born in Cuzco in 1539. His
work, The Royal Commentaries of the Inca, retells the history of both the Incas
and of the expeditions of Pizarro and other Spanish conquerors. It also reviews
accounts about the Incas and their civilization that were written by other
authors.

*
Among the Spaniards who chronicled the lives and times of the Incas are Pedro de
Cieza de Leon, Juan Jose de Betanzos, Pedro Sancho (who was Pizarro's
secretary), and Pedro Pizarro (who was a Pizarro relative). The latter's
eyewitness accounts of the conquest have been studied by countless historians.
Captain Baltasar de Ocampo focused his work on the generation after the conquest
and on the death in 1572 of Tupac Amaru, the last Inca ruler. Although these
accounts often reflect the biases and prejudices of the authors, they do provide
invaluable information about the Kingdom of the Sun.

*
Other historical documents, such as state and church records, legal papers, and
diaries and letters by Spaniards living in Peru and by Incas, also reveal much
about the culture and history of the Incas.




AN ENDURING LEGACY

Hidden away amid the snowy peaks and remote valleys of the Andes, the great
civilization built by the Incas seems far removed from the modern world. That
they possessed some remarkable skills is clear to anyone who has seen even a
photograph of the walls they built without mortar, or heard of the food they
freeze-dried without electricity. But stone walls and frozen fish are not our
greatest concerns today: The health of humanity and the well-being of the planet
are. How could a civilization that knew nothing about wheels or the written word
help us with these issues? The answers might surprise you.

Consider, for example, the strange-sounding but delicious grain quinoa. Long a
staple of the Inca diet, quinoa fell into disfavor after the Spanish arrived.
The staple of the European diet was wheat, a very different type of grain, and,
as the conquistadores were reluctant to change their ways, wheat was what they
wanted in the "New World" as well.

So wheat began to grow in fields once planted with quinoa. But what grows well
in the sunny Spanish countryside does not necessarily thrive in the harsh
climate of the Andes. Centuries later, farmers there realized that it required
enormous quantities of expensive--often poisonous--fertilizers and pesticides to
enjoy even mediocre wheat harvest. But what was the alternative? Quinoa had long
since been forgotten.

Only in the last few years have people remembered the grain's benefits: Because
it is native to the Andes, it grows well there without fertilizer and has a
natural resistance to native bugs, reducing the need for pesticides. To these
virtues, scientists have recently added another: An ounce of quinoa has more
protein, and is generally more nutritious, than an ounce of wheat. In our world
today, with its growing population and ever fewer resources, such benefits could
be vital to survival. Agronomists (scientists who study agriculture) have more
work to do, but one point seems certain: In quinoa, the Incas have given us a
food for the future. We owe other, more familiar items to the Incas as well. Is
there a guinea pig in your home? Thank the Incas, though they tended to eat
their guinea pigs, not keep them as pets. Or perhaps you have visited a place
where malaria is a problem. The pills you took to protect yourself from that
dangerous disease contained quinine, a chemical derived from the bark of several
shrubs and trees native to--you guessed it--the land of the Incas.

Tradition has it that, around 1630, a Spanish countess named Francisca Henriquez
de Ribera was cured of malaria (an infectious disease characterized by chills
and high fever) in South America by using quinine. It was then introduced to
Europe as a cure for malaria. If the story is true, the countess deserves our
thanks for publicizing a drug that has since saved millions of lives. But she is
unlikely to have discovered it herself, if only because Spanish noblewomen of
the time rarely had the opportunity to study science. For quinine, too, then, we
owe thanks to the Incas.



THE INCA CREATION MYTH

According to the Incas, in the beginning of the world, a long time passed in
darkness and flood. Human beings did exist, but they lived in a world of great
hardship because of the inhospitable environment. Finally, the creator god
Viracocha, whose name means "divine origin," called the sun, moon, and stars,
and told them to rise into the sky above Lake Titicaca. The moon became the
sun's wife, and the stars their daughters. There was an island in the center of
the lake. When the sun finally rose over the island's eastern side, the Inca
people were released from the horrible darkness that they had endured for so
long. They rejoiced at the appearance of the creator god and his power to bring
them light in the form of the god of the sun.

Because Viracocha was considered to be a mysterious force, the Incas believed
that they had to contact him through the sun and thunder gods who ruled the
heavens and brought them light and rain. Viracocha was described as a great
bearded figure, full of light, who wore robes and carried a staff of gold. It
was Viracocha who initially journeyed through Peru. As he did so, he brought
life to the animals, plants, birds, and insects, and taught language and culture
to the humans who lived in the lands through which he passed.

Viracocha also performed miracles, and his presence at a particular site was
often the reason given for the creation of an unusual rock formation, a spring,
a waterfall, a cave, or a river. These places were called guacas, or sacred
places of worship. The people who lived near guacas sometimes considered them to
be the place from which their ancestors had emerged. At certain times of the
year, they performed rituals at these sites and gave offerings of food, chicha
(a kind of alcoholic drink made from maize, seeds, and fruits), and precious
objects such as shells, feathers, and gold or silver figurines.

Viracocha's journey took him from his place of origin in the east near Lake
Titicaca to the western coast of Peru where he departed, walking across the
Pacific Ocean and disappearing into the west. The description of his journey
from east to west, his gold staff, beard, and robes--all symbols of age rather
than youth--identifies this deity as the sun at the time of the summer solstice,
when his power is the strongest. The Incas called this aspect of the sun god
Apu-Inti Viracocha, or Lord Sun. He was also called Ilia Tecce, or Eternal
Light. At the winter solstice, when the sun was at its weakest, he was called
Churu-Inti Punchao, or the "Child Sun."

The sun was also considered a generalized sky god who included the god of
thunder named Inti-Illapa, or Thunupa. This god, who was sometimes thought of as
the sun's brother, ruled over such lesser sky deities as the gods of hail,
lightning, rainbows, storms, whirlwinds, the planet Venus, and constellations of
stars.

The summer solstice is the longest day of the year. The winter solstice is the
shortest day of the year.

The "Children of the Sun God"

The Incas told a story that the sun god sent his son, Manco Capac, and his
daughter, Mama Ocllo, to earth to instruct the people of Peru in the arts of
farming, weaving, making pottery, cooking, astronomy, and all the other skills
that would help them live a better life. The Inca rulers believed that their
ancestors were the offspring of the sun and called themselves "children of the
Sun." These rulers also thought of themselves as the sun god's representatives
on earth, and the people worshiped them as the sun's direct descendants.



TEMPLE OF THE SUN GOD

The night before an important battle, the Inca ruler Pachacuti had a dream: He
saw a supernatural figure with serpents wound around both his arms and puma
heads protruding from his body. Rays of light surrounded his face. The figure
wore the headband and earspools that only Inca nobility were allowed to wear. He
told Pachacuti that he would be successful in this and all other battles, and
that he was destined to create and rule a great empire.

Pachacuti won the battle the following day, and went on to fulfill the prophecy
of this vision, whom he believed to be the sun god. After many successful
conquests, he ruled from his capital city of Cuzco and had an image of the
supernatural figure fashioned from gold and placed in the Temple of the Sun. It
was due to this vision and other myths that the Inca rulers believed that they
were chosen to rule over their empire on behalf of the sun god.

When the Inca rulers constructed their capital of Cuzco, they divided it into
four quarters that were defined by the two main roads that crossed through its
center. Extensions of these roads then divided the length and width of the
empire into four quarters. The Incas compared the outline of the city to a puma
lying on its right side, a formation which was created by the two rivers around
which the city was built.

In the center of the city, in the ruler's court, was the majestic Temple of the
Sun. It was covered with gold, a metal that the Incas called "the tears or sweat
of the sun." The temple, called Coricancha, or "Enclosure of Gold," housed many
treasures, including iridescent hummingbird feathers, shells, and gold objects
made in the form of shoes, birds, snakes, spiders, shellfish, precious stones,
and shells. Craftsmen in Cuzco and throughout the empire made these offerings to
the sun god and to the Inca rulers who were his representatives on earth. They
did so to keep the gods happy and life in harmony.

At certain festivals, temple priests "planted" gardens of corn--with everything
made of gold. On the island of Titicaca, sacred corn was cultivated and then
brought to the Inca ruler. The ruler used these sacred kernels magically to keep
the corn that fed the Inca people divine. Corn was worshipped as a gift from the
sun to sustain the life of the people.

Many priests were in charge of the elaborate annual rituals. Sacrifices were
made of brown or white llamas and, sometimes, even the lives of children were
given to appease the gods. There were also hundreds of women called "wives of
the sun," who wove the ceremonial textiles worn by the rulers and sacrificed to
the sun god. They also made the sacred food offered to the god and kept his
household in order.



ANCESTOR WORSHIP

*
Inca rulers were mummified after their deaths to preserve their eternal link
with their father, the sun god. Their mummies were clothed and kept in shrines
in the Temple of the Sun along with the other sacred figures of their gods. The
faces of the mummies were preserved in such a way that they appeared to be
alive. After they died, their hearts were removed from their bodies and
cremated. The ashes were then placed in the hollowed-out torso of a figure of
the sun god, as a symbol of their kinship to him. During important festivals,
the mummies were mounted on chairs or thrones and shown to the people in the
processions. Even in death, Inca rulers kept their riches and land, both of
which were maintained by people specially chosen for the task.



THE SEARCH FOR INCA MUMMIES

When I left the ruins at Llullaillaco (yu yay yako) in 1985, I did so with the
intention of returning in a year or two. It was 14 years, however, before I was
able to fulfill this dream. With me was a six-member archaeological team, all
eager to tackle the difficult job of excavating at the high altitude of 22,000
feet. Llullaillaco is the world's highest archaeological site.

Preparation for this 1999 expedition had been intense, especially since we
needed over a ton of supplies, including fuel and water, just to reach base camp
at 16,000 feet. We then spent five days ferrying loads to a higher camp and
adjusting to the altitude. The reduced amounts of oxygen at this height make it
difficult to breathe and even to think.

Gradually, we made our ascent to the summit. Much to our surprise, the soil on
the exposed part was largely unfrozen, and thus the excavations were far easier
than we had expected. It was still exhausting to move around, let alone work.
Yet, some of the team were in such good condition that they began a competition
to see how many swings of a pick or scoops of a shovel could be made before
having to stop.

Suddenly, the Peruvian climber Arcadio Mamani shouted, "Mummy!" We all stopped
what we were doing and went to take a look.

More than five feet below the surface he had found a textile-wrapped bundle
containing the frozen body of a boy about 8 years old. Parts of the boy's arms,
hands, and feet were visible and in excellent condition. His knees were drawn up
in a fetal position and bound tightly with a cord. By his left arm were sandals
and a sling. He wore moccasins and white fur anklets. A broad silver bracelet
covered his right wrist.

Then, just a few yards away, we uncovered another mummy. This proved to be that
of a teenage girl, perhaps 14 years old. Human sacrifices were rare among the
Incas, and were only done as special offerings to the gods. Children were
especially important, because they were considered purer than adults. Indeed, a
sacrificed child was believed to become a direct representative of the people
and to live forever after with the gods. These children were worshipped and
received sacrifices.

The nature of the excavation work meant that we had to use our fingers more
often than tools. As a result, our fingertips were so sore that we had
difficulty tying our shoelaces for some time afterwards. Still, the work
continued. This time it was Orlando Jaen, a Peruvian archaeology student, who
brought work to a halt when he shouted, "This is unbelievable!" All of us peered
into a small opening and saw a row of multicolored feather headdresses. More
digging led to a small bundle--the sign of a mummy. But, to our dismay, we found
that lightning had struck the mummy sometime after it was buried. Perhaps the
silver shawl pins found on the mummy had attracted the lightning. As I drew back
the cloth cover, I was stunned to be staring directly into the child's face.
None of us had ever expected it to be so remarkably well-preserved.

After 13 days on the summit, we prepared to leave. This meant we had to race
against time. Using my satellite phone, I arranged for dry ice to be brought to
the mountain. This was the only way I could be confident that the mummies would
remain frozen until they reached the storage freezers in the city of Salta. To
preserve them, we knew we had to keep them from thawing or drying out. Until the
dry ice arrived, we packed the mummies with snow, placed them in insulating
pads, and kept them in rock crevices above our base camp.

At Salta's Catholic University, the real work began. CAT scans of the three
mummies showed their organs to be incredibly well preserved. Llullaillaco is so
cold and exposed to high winds that the bodies must have frozen immediately upon
burial, and there apparently had been no melting during the 500 or so years they
had remained there. If the bodies had frozen gradually, the organs would have
shrunk.

We looked to the CAT scans to provide us with the probable causes of death. The
scans of the frozen body of a young Inca girl (known today as the "Ice Maiden")
that we found on the Peruvian volcano of Ampato in 1995 had shown definite
evidence of a fatal blow to the head. Although the CAT scans of our new find
showed no signs of force or violence, they did indicate that the heart still had
blood in it. Since very little blood has ever been found in mummies, the
Llullaillaco mummies offer the chance to search for antibodies that would
indicate what diseases infected the children. Such knowledge would, in turn,
increase our understanding of the way some diseases have developed over the
centuries and may even help in combating them today.

Examination of the mummies continued, while freezers were being prepared to
house them. A hush fell over the room as I removed the head cloth of the older
girl and we saw her face for the first time. Her hair was stylishly braided, and
she appeared to be asleep. But it was her hands that affected me personally.
There were perfectly life like, as if ready to move.

Under the boy was a folded tunic--a spare one for his journey to another world.
He also had two bags made from animal intestines, which likely contained hair
and nail clippings--a common practice in Inca times.

Lightning had damaged the left ear, shoulder, and part of the chest of the
youngest girl, but her two braids, one on either side of her face, were still
intact. Her mouth was slightly open, and the teeth were visible. The fine
collection of statues, pottery, carved wooden beakers, and other items buried
with her indicate her high status.

The study of these mummies and the artifacts buried with them will open yet
another window into the world of the ancient Incas.



COUNTING KNOTS THE INCA WAY

The Incas used knots to connect or hold objects in place, and to record history
as well. Quipu (KEE poo), meaning "knot," was the Inca system of using knots to
keep track of everything from newborn babies to the number of men who went to
war. Even battles, fights, laws, ordinances, ceremonies, royal speeches, and
arguments were recorded using quipus.

A quipu consisted of a main cord with colored strings of various lengths hanging
from it--much like a fringe. Each colored thread represented a subject, such as
yellow for gold, white for silver, green for coca, and red for warriors. Objects
that had no special colors were arranged in order, beginning with the most
important and ending with the least important. Thus, records of weapons began
with spears, followed by darts, bows, arrows, clubs, axes, and slings. The Incas
classified the inhabitants of each village by groups: men age 60 and older, then
men in their 50s, and so on in groups of 10 years, down to boy babies. Women
were counted separately, but in the same manner.

Each string was tied with a combination of knots that together gave a picture of
the Inca Empire at any given moment. These knots represented numbers in a
decimal counting system and were arranged in order of units: tens, hundreds,
thousands, and tens of thousands. Since each village kept its own *records, and
since each set of records referred only to a single year, the number never went
beyond 100,000. The greatest number, say, tens of thousands, was knotted at the
upper end of the threads, the thousands lower down, and so on.

Every quipu was different; each was also meaningless without someone to
interpret it. The makers, keepers, and interpreters of the quipus were called
quipucamayos (KEE poo kah MY ohs). Since quipus only represented numbers, the
quipucamayos used signs or a few words to indicate the historical events or
facts that the knots represented. Because they knew these signs or words from
memory and did not write them down, today there is no way for anyone to tell
what the knots on the ancient quipus record.



MAKE YOUR OWN QUIPU

Try making your own quipu to record:

• the number of days in a month with and without rain

• the number of births, both male and female, in your hometown for one month
(watch the birth announcements in your local newspaper)

• a topic of your own choosing

YOU NEED

• thick colored yarn or thread (2 to 10 colors)

• ruler or wooden stick

• poster board

• colored markers

• piece of paper

• pencil

DIRECTIONS

1 Pick a topic and plan to keep a record for at least one month.

2 Determine the number of colored threads you will need to use. For example, if
you choose to record days with and without rain, you will need two colors--one
for those with rain, and one for those without.

3 Tie one end of each of the different colored threads to the ruler or wooden
stick.

4 Each day, tie a knot or knots in, the appropriate Colored thread or threads.
For example, for a rainy day, tie a knot only in the colored thread you chose
for days with rain.

5 Instead of committing the key to memory as the Incas did, make a written key,
using the poster board and colored markers, to explain what each color
represents.

6 At the end of the month, count the number of knots tied in each thread and
record the count for each thread on a separate piece of paper.

7 Exchange your quipu with friends and ask them to see if they can interpret it,
using only the key. Check their answers with the number you recorded on paper.



OFF THE SHELF

BOOKS

Adventures in Archaeology by Tom McGowen (New York: Twenty-First Century Books,
1997) is one of the Scientific American Sourcebooks. Its well-researched and
fascinating chapters focus on "Digging Up the Past," "Lost Cities, Vanished
Empires," "Tombs, Graves, Bones, and Bodies," and "Words from the Past."

Atlas of Ancient America by Michael Coe, Dean Snow, and Elizabeth Benson (New
York: Facts On File, 1980) provides a wealth of information about the peoples
who once inhabited the Americas. One- to two-page site features focus on such
areas as Cuzco and Chan Chan, while special feature sections include one on
Andean textiles and another on the sacred stone of the Incas. Crisp, clear
illustrations and photographs, as well as a great variety of easy-to-read maps,
greatly enhance the text.

The Children's Atlas of Civilizations by Antony Mason (Brookfield, Connecticut:
The Millbrook Press, 1994) includes a two-page chapter on "The Incas" in its
section on the Americas. Maps and well-chosen images of primary sources
supplement the text.

Finding the Lost Cities by Rebecca Stefoff (New York: Oxford University Press,
1997) is an excellent, carefully researched, and interesting-to-read resource
about 12 ancient sites, including Machu Picchu.

Great Civilizations: Aztecs and Incas AD 1300-1532 by Penny Bateman (New York:
Franklin Watts, 1988) uses colorful, detailed illustrations and clear maps,
accompanied by caption-type text, to tell the story of these peoples.

The Incas by Pamela Ojik (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Silver Burdett Press,
1989) is a good introduction to the people and their civilization. Well-chosen
contemporary and modern illustrations and photographs greatly enrich the text.

The Incas by Tim Wood (New York: Viking, 1996) uses a two-page chapter format,
with wonderful illustrations and four "see-through" scenes, to introduce the
reader to the government, the engineering capabilities, daily life, temples,
trade, and customs of these people.

MEDIA

The Americas Before the Europeans: 300-1500 (a 26-minute VHS video produced in
1985 and available through Landmark Media, Falls Church, Virginia)

The Incas and Their History and Lima, Peru, Today (each is a 30-minute video
available through Landmark Media, Falls Church, Virginia) relate the present to
the past, as they focus on the similarities and differences between the Incas
today and their ancestors.

Secrets of Lost Empires: Inca (60-minute cassette and 12-page teacher's guide
produced by WGBH Boston Video, 1997) explores magnificent mountainside
citadels--and marvels as villagers create a 150-foot suspension bridge using
nothing but grass.