Notes

Introduction

1. This flood of grieving can be found in the veritable subgenre of plays and poems dedicated to the slain leader. See For Malcolm: Poems on the Life and the Death of Malcolm X {Detroit: Broadside Press, 1967); LeRoi Jones, The Death of Malcolm X, New Plays from the Black Theatre, ed. Ed Bullins (New York: Bantam, 1969) 1-20; N. R. Davidson, El Hajj Malik, New Plays from the Black Theatre, 201-46; and Sonia Sanchez, "Malcolm/Man Don't Live Here Anymore," Black Theatre 6 (1972): 24-27.

2. Ossie Davis, "Eulogy of Malcolm X," For Malcolm, 121.

3. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Verso, 1991) 12.

4. Davis, "Eulogy," 121.

5. Ibid.

6. Scholars working in a broad range of historical periods have explored the discrete processes whereby masculine identity and politics are equated. See James Oliver Horton, "Freedom's Yoke: Gender Conventions among Antebellum Free Blacks," Feminist Studies 12, no. 1 (1986): 51-76; James Oliver Horton and Louis E. Horton, 'Violence, Protest and Identity: Black Manhood in Antebellum America," A Question of Manhood: A Reader in U.S. Black Men's History and Masculinity, ed. Darlene Clark Hine and Earnestine Jenkins, vol. 1, "Manhood Rights": The Construction of Black Male History and Manhood, 1750-1850 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999) 382-98; Maurice Wallace, Constructing the Black Masculine: Identity and Ideality in African American Men's Literature and Culture, 1775-1995 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2002) 2-50, 53-81; Marlon B. Ross, Manning the Race: Reforming Black Men in the Jim Crow Era (New York: New York University Press, 2004); Phillip Brian Harper, Are We Not Men ? Masculine Anxiety and the Problem of African American Identity (New York: Oxford University Press).

7. Eldridge Cleaver, Soul on Ice (1968; New York: Delta, 1999) 84.

8. Angela Davis, Angela Davis: An Autobiography (1974; New York: International Publishers, 1988) 187; bell hooks, Black Looks: Race and Representation (Boston: South End Press, 1992) 101. Also see Madhu Dubey, Black Women Novelists and the Nationalist Aesthetic (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994) 17-18; Paula Giddings, When and Where I Enter: The Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America (1984; New York: Bantam, 1988) 314-24; Calvin C. Hernton, The Sexual Mountain and Black Women Writers: Adventures in Sex, Literature and Real Life (New

122 Notes to Pages 2-7

York: Anchor Press, 1987) 40-42; and Michelle Wallace, Black Macho and the Myth of the Super-woman (1979; New York: Warner Books, 1980) 1-126.

9. Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Random House, 1967) 46.

10. James Farmer, Black Protest Thought in the Twentieth Century, ed. August Meier, Elliott Rudwick, and Francis L. Broderick (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1971) 579. For similar sentiments, see also Dubey, 26-27; Larry Neal, "New Space/The Growth of Black Consciousness in the Sixties," The Black Seventies, ed. Floyd B. Barbour (Boston: Porter Sargent, 1970) 9-31; Alphonso Pinkney, Red, Black, and Green: Black Nationalism in the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976) 218-19; and Willliam L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965-75 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992) 26-28, 51-62.

ILK William Kgositsile, "Towards Our Theatre: A Definitive Act," Black Expression, ed. Addison Gaylejr. (New York: Weybright and Talley, 1969) 146.

12. Stuart Hall, "Signification, Representation, Ideology: Althusser and the Post-Structuralist Debates," Critical Perspectives on Media and Society, ed. Robert K Avery and David Eason (New York: Guilford, 1991) 109.

13. Louis Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (1971; New York: Monthly Review Press, 2001) 109.

14. Althusser, "Freud and Lacan," Lenin and Philosophy, 149.

15. Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," 46-47.

16. In addition to Reid-Pharr and Harper, other important works in the post-identity subfield include Hazel Carby, Reconstructing Womanhood: The Emergence of the Afro-American Woman Novelist (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Hazel Carby, Race Men (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998); Madhu Dubey, Signs and Cities:, Black Literary Postmodernism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003). J. Martin Favor, Authentic Blackness: The Folk in the New Negro Renaissance (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1999); Paul Gilroy, Against Race: Imagining Political Culture beyond the Color Line (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 2000); Hortense Spillers, "The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual: A Post-Date," Boundary 2 21, no. 3 (1995): 65-116.

17. Robert Reid-Pharr, "Violent Ambiguity: Martin Delany, Bourgeois Sadomasochism, and the Production of a Black National Masculinity," Representing Black Men, ed. Marcellus Blount and George Cunningham (New York: Roudedge, 1996) 77. Reid-Pharr has since revised his use of sadomasochism, but the essay nonetheless stands as a benchmark in the revisionist scholarship on this issue. For the revised version, see his Conjugal Union: The Body, the House, and the Black American (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) 111-27.

18. Reid-Pharr, "Violent Ambiguity," 76.

19. Harper, Are We Not Men} 53.

20. James Alan McPherson, "Of Kings and Cabbages," Hue and Cry: Short Stories (Boston: Little, Brown, 1969) 111. Subsequent references to this work are cited parenthetically in text.

21. The less prominent place of the novel in Black Power aesthetics is confirmed in James Smethurst, The Black Arts Movement: Literary Nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005) 90-91; Dubey, Black Women Novelists, 22.

22. The most comprehensive overview of these institutions to date can be found

in Smethurst, Black Arts Movement. Also see Mrlba |oy< e Boyd, Wrestling with the

Notes to Pages 8-13 123

Muse: Dudley Randle and the Broadside Press (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003).

23. Stephen Henderson, "'Survival Motion': A Study of the Black Writer and the Black Revolution in America," The Militant Black Writer (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969) 65.

24. Ed Bullins, "Interview with Ed Bullins," interview by Marvin X, New Plays from the Black Theatre, ed. Ed Bullins (New York: Bantam Books, 1969) viii.

25. On this widely held sentiment, see Hoyt Fuller, "Towards a Black Aesthetic," The Black Aesthetic, ed. Addison Gaylejr. (Garden City, N.Y: Anchor Books, 1971) 9; Stephen Henderson, introduction, Understanding the New Black Poetry: Black Poetry and Black Speech as Poetic References, ed. Stephen Henderson (New York: William & Morrow, 1973) 3-69; Larry Neal, "Black Art and Black Liberation," The Black Revolution: An Ebony Special Issue (Chicago: Johnson Publishing, 1970) 31-53.

26. Henderson, "Survival Motion," 108.

27. First quote is Joseph Boone, "Of Me(n) and Feminism: Who(se) Is the Sex That Writes?" Gender and Theory, ed. Linda Kauffman (New York: Blackwell, 1989) 159. Second quote is from Michael Awkward, Negotiating Difference: Race, Gender, and the Politics of Positionality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995) 44. Also see hooks, 100.

28. On this problem, see Deborah McDowell, "Reading Family Matters," Changing Our Own Words: Essays on Criticism, Theory, and Writing by Black Women, ed. Cheryl Wall (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1989) 75-97.

29. Awkward, 54.

30. See Granville Hicks, review of Hue and Cry, by James Alan McPherson, Saturday Review May 24, 1969, 47-48. Ellison quoted in Hicks, 48; Irving Howe, "New Black Writers," Harper's December 1969: 130-41. Ronald Christ, review of Hue and Cry, Commonweal September 19, 1969: 570-71.

31. See footnote 15 in Herman Beavers, Wrestling Angels into Song: The Fiction of Ernest J. Gaines and James Alan McPherson (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992) 236-37.

32. Maulana Ron Karenga, The Quotable Karenga, ed. Clyde Halisi and James Minme (Los Angeles: US Organization, 1967) 6.

(Jiafter 1

1. Julius Lester, "Some Tickets Are Better: The Mixed Achievements of James r»-ildwin," review of The Price of the Ticket, by James Baldwin, Critical Essays on James Baldwin, ed. Fred L. Standley and Nancy V. Burt (Boston: G. K Hall, 1988) 247.

2. David Van Leer, "The Fire Last Time," The New Republic February 13, 1995: '»'/ For similar views, see Mario Puzo, "His Cardboard Lovers," review of Tell Me How Long the Train lias Bern Cone, by James Baldwin, Critical Essays on James Baldwin, l.r>.r>, l.r)<S; Darry] Pinkney, "BlllCS for Mr. Baldwin," review of Just Above My Head, by James Baldwin, Critical Essays on James Baldwin, 165; Jack Richardson, " [Tie Black Arts," The New York Review of Books, review of Thll Me How Long the Train Ilo\ lleen Con,■• | ><■< embci M), l'K>.S; I I Noi is it accurate (o suggest Ihal Baldwin tolerated .ill the movement's rheloi i< .il cxi esses See Baldwin's let lei < autioning Mack Tower advo< ate.s about theit anti-Semitism "Anti-Semitism and Itlact Power," Fmdomways 7, no i 119811

I Set fames Campbell) Ihlking at the Gates [ Life of James Baldwin (Newlforl

124 Notes to Pages I i 11

Viking, 1991) 148-51; Leeming, 188-91; W. ). Wcathcrby, fames Baldwin Artist

on Fire (New York: Donald Fine, 1989) 197-202.

4. James Baldwin, The Fire Next Time (New York: Dial Tress, L963) 78-79. Sub sequent references to this work are cited parenthetic ally in text.

5. On the meaning of patriarchy, see Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986) 212-29, 238-39; Nancy Coward, Patriarchal Precedents: Sexuality and Sexual Relations (London: Routledge, 1983) 7-8; Donna Haraway, Women, Simians, and Cyborgs: The Reinvention of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1991) 9-10; and Nancy Jay, "Sacrifice as Remedy for Having Been Born a Woman," Immaculate and Powerful: The Female in Sacred Image and Social Reality, ed. Clarissa Adkinson, Constance Buchanan, and Margaret Miles (New York: Beacon Press, 1985) 283-309.

6. On the distinction between masculinity and manhood, see Gail Bedermen, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995) 5-8.

7. James Baldwin, No Name in the Street (New York: Dell, 1972) 171.

8. On the increase in the NOFs public visibility and membership during the period between 1959 and 1964, see Mattias Gardell, Countdown to Armageddon: Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam (London: Hurst, 1996) 65-68; Louis Lomax, When the Word Is Given (New York: Signet, 1963) 9-11, 31; Bruce Perry Malcolm: The Life of a Man Who Changed Black America (Barrytown, N.Y: Station Hill Press, 1991) 174-86; C. Eric Lincoln, The Black Muslims in America (1961; Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1994) 102-4, 124-29.

9. On the remarkable success of the publication, see Weatherby, 206; Campbell, 160;Leeming, 211.

10. Campbell, 179.

11. Ibid., 156.

12. Quotes from Robert Fulford, "The Black Nationalism of the New James Baldwin," review of The Fire Next Time, by James Baldwin, Maclean's July 1963: 45; "The Racial Nightmare," Newsweek February 4, 1963: 81. Responses that highlight Baldwin's sympathy with the NOI include "Baldwin: Grey Flannel Muslim?" review of The Fire Next Time, Christian Century 80 (1963): 12; John Gross, "Day of Wrath," New Statesman July 19, 1963: 79. Responses that emphasize Baldwin's humanism include Sheldon Binn, review of The Fire Next Time, New York Times January 31, 1963: 7; William Barrett, review of The Fire Next Time, Atlantic Monthly March 1963: 156.

13. James Finn, 'James Baldwin's Vision," review of The Fire Next Time, Commonweal July 26, 1963: 447.

14. James Baldwin, "An Interview with James Baldwin," Conversations with James Baldwin, ed. Fred L. Standley and Louis L. Pratt (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1989) 12.

15. Baldwin's remarks about the exhaustion of the civil rights movement date the decline a few years earlier than conventional historiography. See Lerone Bennett, Before the Mayflower (New York: Penguin, 1982) 386-433; Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995) 229-43; Alan J. Matusow, "From Civil Rights to Black Power: The Case of SNCC 1960-1966," Gonna Sit at the Welcome Table, ed. Julian Bond and Andrew Lewis (New York: Custom Publishing, 1995) 778.

16. "Interview with James Baldwin," 13.

17. Michel Fabre, "Fathers and Sons in James Baldwin's Go Tell It on the

N«.i, i to Pag( i i 26 1SS

Mountain," James BaUinnn \ ( aUtrtian <>/ ( ritimlI wtayx,c6 Keith Kinnamon (Engli wood < UK n | Prentia Hall, 191 f) 139 ih. David Baldwin was appan ntlj nol Baldwin's biological father, )>■ ■ i (even

(hough James Baldwin was aware Oi fins), he always referred l<> David Baldwin

.is his father. Sec Leeming, S 4; Weatherby, 6-7.

19. Campbell, 6-7; Leeming, 5.

20. See fames Baldwin, "Notes of a Native Son," Notes of a Native Son (Boston: Beacon Hill Press, 1955) 87.

21. This definition of ideology is informed by revisions of Marxist paradigms h\ I ,ouis Althusser and other structuralists. See Louis Althusser, For Marx, trans. Ben Brewster (New York: Pantheon Books, 1969) 233-34. Roland Barthes's notion < >l myth functions in similar terms. See his Mythologies, trans. Annette Lavers (New York: Hill and Wang, 1972) 129-31, 142-45.

22. The term "charisma" of course refers to Weber's argument that a certain older of leaders possesses a form of authority that is imagined to be divinely or magically given. See Max Weber, Max Weber on Charisma and Institution Building, ed. S. N. Eisenstadt (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968).

23. Baldwin dramatically misreads Muhammad's affection for his female disciples as benevolence; for at least a dozen NOI women would later charge Muhammad with fathering their illegitimate children. The extent of his extramarital affairs has been well substantiated. See Perry, Malcolm, 230-32; Gardell, Countdown to Armageddon, 78-79.

24. "Baldwin: Grey Flannel Muslim," 12.

25. Perry, Malcolm, 144; Claude Clegg III, An Original Man: The Life and Times of Elijah Muhammad (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997) 35.

26. Quotes from Elijah Muhammad, Message to the Black Man (Chicago: Muhammad's Temple #2, 1965) 31. Subsequent references to this work will be made parenthetically in text.

27. Quoted in Clegg, 63.

28. Ibid.; also see Lincoln, 105-6, 115.

29. "A Conversation with James Baldwin," Conversations with James Baldwin, 41.

30. Ibid., 41.

31. The Gide essay was republished under the title "The Male Prison." Quotations are from that republished version. See James Baldwin, "The Male Prison," Nobody Knows My Name (New York: Dell, 1961) 129, 132.

32. Ibid., 129-30.

33. James Baldwin, Go Tell It on the Mountain (New York: Dell Publishing, 1952) 72.

34. On Gabriel's patriarchal fantasy, see Go Tell It, 72-73, 114, 139.

35. Lincoln, 30.

36. Malcolm X and Alex Haley, The Autobiography of Malcolm X (1965; New York: Ballantine, 1987) 216. Further citations of this work are given parenthetically in the text.

37. Huey P. Newton, Revolutionary Suicide (1973; New York: Writers and Readers, 1995) 91.

38. Ibid., 96.

39. Baldwin makes similar claims about the relationship between individual freedom and questioning received ideology in "What Price Freedom," Freedom-ways 4 (1964): 193; "A Talk to Teachers," Saturday Review December 21,1963: 42; "The White Man's Guilt," Ebony August 1965: 47; and "The Image: Three Views—

126 Notes to Pages 26-33

Ben Shahan, Darius Milhaud, and James Baldwin Debate the Real Meaning of a Fashionable Term," Conversations with James Baldwin, 31.

40. James Baldwin, "The Creative Dilemma," Saturday Review February 8, 1964: 58.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid., 17.

43. "A Letter to Americans," Freedomways 8, no. 2 (1968): 112.

44. Ibid.

45. Ibid., 115.

46. 'James Baldwin Breaks His Silence," Conversations with James Baldwin, 60.

47. Ibid., 61.

48. See Campbell, 221.

49. "Letter to Americans," 112-13.

50. On the controversial attack, also see Marlon Ross, "White Fantasies of Desire: Baldwin and the Racial Identities of Sexuality," James Baldwin Now, ed. Dwight A. McBride (New York: New York University Press, 2000) 17-18; Spurlin, 112-15; Shelton Waldrep, "'Being Bridges': Cleaver/Baldwin/Lorde and African-American Sexuality," Journal of Homosexuality 262, nos. 2-3 (1993): 167-76.

51. Eldridge Cleaver, "Notes on a Native Son," Soul on Ice, 134.

52. Ibid., 128-29.

53. George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York: Basic Books, 1994) 47-63, 65-97. On inversion, also see John D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1940-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998) 16-17; Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Epistemology of the Closet (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990) 87.

54. Chauncey, 48.

55. Amiri Baraka and the Black Panthers all made public statements criticizing Baldwin's politics; see Leeming, 304; The Black Panther May 18, 1968: 2.

56. Leeming, 304; Weatherby, 292.

57. Baldwin, No Name in the Street, 171. All subsequent references to this work are cited parenthetically in text.

58. Baldwin, "Male Prison" 128, James Baldwin and Nikki Giovanni, A Dialogue: James Baldwin /Nikki Giovanni (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1973) 88-89; Cora Kaplan, "'A Cavern Opened in My Mind': The Poetics of Homosexuality in James Baldwin," Representing Black Men, ed. Marcellus Blount and George P. Cunningham (New York: Routledge, 1996) 38-39.

59. Baldwin and Giovanni, A Dialogue, 88-89.

60. As George Chauncey's work suggests, the social production of the "Fairie" or "effeminate" man indeed was central to the actual sexual economy of the New York in which Baldwin was raised. Chauncey's social history affirms precisely the assertion Baldwin makes here. See Chauncey, 47-63.

61. The full Panther platform is reprinted in The Black Panthers Speak, ed. Philip S. Foner (New York: Da Capo Press, 1995) 2-4.

62. James Baldwin, IfBeale Street Could Talk (New York: Signet, 1974) 60-61.

63. George Goodman Jr., "For James Baldwin, a Rap on Baldwin," New York Times June 26, 1972: 38. Also see Weatherby, 316.

64. Beale Street, 73.

65. Ibid.

66. See Luce Irigaray, This Sex Which Is Not One, trans. Catherine Porter witli Carolyn Burke (Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press, 1985) 23 38; |n<i«ii< Butler,

Notes to Pages 34-40 127

Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990) 26-28.

67. Bobby Seale, A Lonely Rage: The Autobiography of Bobby Seale (New York: Times Books, 1978) vii.

68. Ibid., 152.

69. Lawrence Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977) 413-15.

70. Ibid., 413-20.

71. Baldwin, foreword, Lonely Rage, xii.

72. Quote from Puzo, "His Cardboard Lovers," 155-58. See also Richardson, "Black Arts," 11; Granville Hicks, "From Harlem with Hatred," review of Tell Me, Saturday Review June 1, 1968, 23.

73. In a rare effort to remedy the novel's marginality, Lynn Orilla Scott argues that the novel's status is also rooted in the homophobia that has figured prominently in its reception. See Scott, Witness to the Journey: James Baldwin's Later Fiction (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2002) 20-61. This argument, however, does not adequately account for the neglect of the text in recent years when "queer theory" has been at the forefront of the Baldwin revival.

74. Introduction, James Baldwin Now, ed. McBride 8.

75. Examples of this narrow focus include William A. Cohen, "Liberalism, Libido, Liberation: Baldwin's Another Country," Genders 12 (1991): 1-21; Kaplan, 27-54; James A. Dievler, "Sexual Exiles: James Baldwin and Another Country," James Baldwin Now, ed. McBride, 161-86; William J. Spurlin, "Culture, Rhetoric, and Queer Identity: James Baldwin and the Identity Politics of Race and Sexuality," James Baldwin Now, 103-21; Susan Feldman, "Another Look at Another Country: Reconciling Baldwin's Racial and Sexual Politics," Re-viewing James Baldwin: Things Mot Seen, ed. D. Quentin Miller (Philadelphia: Temple University Press) 88-104; Robert Reid-Pharr, "Tearing the Goat's Flesh," Black Gay Man: Essays (New York: New York University Press, 2001) 99-134. A notable exception is Warren J. Carson, "Manhood, Musicality, and Male Bonding in Just Above My Head," Re-viewing James Baldwin, 215-32.

76. Tell Me How Long the Train Has Been Gone (New York: Dell Publishing, 1968) 1 1. Subsequent references to this work will be cited parenthetically in text.

77. The scene's combination of black revolutionary nationalism and New Left Cultural politics was a genuine part of the political culture of the late 1960s. For I >ai ticipants in these social movements these tenuous alliances were often a source <>l ideological tension and political confusion. See Douglas Rossinow, The Politics of Authenticity: Liberalism, Christianity, and the New Left in America (New York: (:<>lmnbia University Press, 1998) 14-16, 187-207. See also the Black Panther's (< inflicted position on alliances with white leftists in Black Panthers Speak, 52, 54, '»<>; Huey P. Newton, "On the Peace Movement," To Die for the People: The Writings (>l Huey T. Newton, ed. Toni Morrison (New York: Random House, 1972; New York: Writers and Readers, 1995) 148-51.

(Chapter 2

I. Adolph Reed, Stirrings m the Jug: Black PoUHcs m thePost-Segregation Era (Minneapolis University ol Minnesota Pi< ss. 1999) 209

' fohn Edgai VVideman, "Dead lila< k Mrn And ()thei Falloui from (he Amer-ii .m i >n .mi / s.jiiik Si ptembei 1992 156

128 Notes to Pages 41-45

3. Ibid., 151.

4. James Coleman, Blackness and Modernism: The Literary Career of John Edgar Wideman (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1989) 151.

5. Ibid., 44.

6. "The Black Panther Party Stands for Revolutionary Solidarity," Black Panthers Speak, ed. Foner, 220.

7. Max Stanford, The Ideology of Black Revolution, The Black Movement: Part 3, Papers of the Revolutionary Action Movement, 1962-1996, ed. Muhammad Ahmad, Ernie Allen, and John H. Bracey (1970; Bethesda: LexisNexis, 2002) microfilm, 251.

8. Ibid., 252.

9. Robert F. Williams, "USA: The Potential of a Minority Revolution," Negro Protest Thought in the Twentieth Century, ed. Francis L. Broderick and August Meier (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965) 330.

10. Ibid., 331.

11. On the Panthers' advocacy of violence, see Huey P. Newton, "The Correct Handling of a Revolution," Black Panthers Speak, ed. Foner, 41-42; Eldridge Cleaver, "The Fascists Have Already Decided in Advance to Murder Chairman Bobby Seale in the Electric Chair: A Manifesto," Black Panthers Speak, 118-19; G. Louis Heath, ed., Off the Pigs! The Literature and History of the Black Panther Party (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1976) 184-85; George Jackson, Blood in My Eye (New York: Random House, 1972) 11-12; "News Briefs: Guerilla Attacks in U.S.A. February 1971," The Black Panther February, 27, 1971: 9; Bernard D. Nossiter, "Panther Parley Cheers Call to Kill Authorities," Washington Post September 6, 1970: Al.

12. See Heath, Off the Pigs, 190-92; Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story (New York: Pantheon, 1992) 221-25; Huey P. Newton, "On the Defection of Eldridge Cleaver from the Black Panther Party and the Defection of the Black Panther Party from the Black Community," Black Panthers Speak, ed.

Foner, 276-77.

13. For an overview, see Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon, 165-70. Also see Russell Sackett, "Plotting a War on Whitey," Life June 10, 1966: 100A-112.

14. "Mass Poison Plot Laid to Negroes," The New York Times September 28,1967:

33.

15. Ibid., 33. Months earlier New York RAM members had also been arrested and charged for conspiring to assassinate key political figures. This plot was linked to RAM's desire to catalyze massive black uprisings. See "Busting RAM," Time June

30, 1967: 20.

16. For an alternate version of this event, see Eldridge Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver. Post-Prison Writings and Speeches, ed. Robert Scheer (New York: Random House, 1969) 80-95. However, Cleaver's testimony on the event was given as he was being charged for a number of felonies stemming from this conflict with police. Hil-liard's version is told long after he was in danger of being prosecuted. Moreover, the Panthers often struggled to reign in the face of such renegade "revolutionary" exploits by their members. See Heath, Off the Pigs, 190-92; Brown, 221-25; Newton, "On the Defection of Eldridge Cleaver," 276-77.

17. Newton, Revolutionary Suicide, 111.

18. Newton, "Psychology: The Black Bible," Post-Prison Writings and Speeches, 18.

19. Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, trans. Charles Lam Markmann (New York: Grove Press, 1967) 166. Subsequent references cited parenthetically in text.

20. Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, trans. Constance Farrington (New York: Grove Press, L963) 36.

Notes to Pages 46-58 129

21. Quote from H. Rap Brown, Die Nigger, Die! (New York: Dial Press, 1969) 39. See also Earl Anthony, Picking Up the Gun: A Report on the Black Panthers (New York: Dial Press, 1970); Foner, Black Panthers Speak, 9-12.

22. Fanon, Wretched, 38.

23. Trudier Harris, Exorcising Blackness: Historical and Literary Lynching and Burning Rituals (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1984) 15, 19-24; Robyn Wiegman, American Anatomies: Theorizing Race and Gender (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1995) 81-114; Sandra Gunning, Race, Rape, and Lynching: The Red Record of American Literature, 1890-1912 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996) 7.

24. For quote, see Newton, "Correct Handling of a Revolution," 41-42.

25. Jackson, Blood in My Eye, 27.

26. Ibid., 34.

27. Newton, Revolutionary Suicide, 7.

28. Max Stanford, Black Nationalism in America, ed. John H. Bracey, August Meier, and Elliott Rudwick (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1970) 517.

29. Stanford, Ideology of Black Revolution, 42.

30. Ibid.

31. Cleaver, Soul on Ice, 237. Subsequent references to this work will be made parenthetically in text.

32. John Edgar Wideman, The Lynchers (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovano-vich, 1973; New York: Henry Holt, 1986) 62. Subsequent references to this work will be made parenthetically in text.

33. Wiegman, 90.

34. Dialogism, of course, refers to Bakhtin's notion that fiction can speak in the voice of discourses alien to the authorial voice and at the same time speak back to those discourses through parodic and ironic narrative strategies. M. M. Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, ed. Michael Holquist, trans. Caryl Emerson (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981) 299-314.

35. Newton, To Die for the People, 116.

36. Ibid.

37. Ibid., 146.

38. Newton, Revolutionary Suicide, 328.

39. Ibid., 133.

40. Richard Wesley, "On Black Terror," The New Lafayette Theater Presents, ed. Ed Bullins (New York: Doubleday, 1974) 218.

41. Ibid.

42. Richard Wesley, Black Terror: A Revolutionary Adventure Story, The New Lafayette Theater Presents, 273. Subsequent references are made parenthetically in text.

43. Stanford, The Ideology of Black Revolution, 45. The Panthers also claimed to recognize the need to embrace gender parity as a counter to the dominant cul-ture. See Eldridge Cleaver, "Message to Sister Erica Huggins of the Black Panther Party," Black Panthers Speak, ed. Foner, 98-99; Huey P. Newton, "The Women's Liberation and Gay Liberation Movements," lb Die for the People, 152-55.

I I. Stanford, Ideology of Black Revolution, 49.

i > Etheridge Knight, Toons from Prison (Detroit: Broadside Press, L968) 12. All subsequent references (<> I his work .we on (his same page.

in Newton, Tb Die for the People, 79, Bl,

iv [bid B]

i 11m< \ p Newton TUkitothc Movi ">< "i Black Panthen Speak, < id Foner, 55

130 Notes to Pages 58-65

49. Terry Eagleton's claim about the structure of ideology aptly captures this process: "Ideology is language which forgets the essentially contingent, accidental relation between itself and the world, and comes to mistake itself as having some organic, inevitable bond to what it represents." Eagle ton, Ideology: An Introduction (New York: Verso, 1991) 200.

50. "Huey P. Newton Talks to the Movement," 61.

51. I refer to the aesthetic tradition in modernism wherein artists developed formal strategies for the "disestablishing of communal reality." Responding variously to modernization and the growing pervasiveness of technology in everyday life, modernists have worked to abstract discourses and artifacts from their traditional contexts, thereby removing their aura of authenticity. Collage, montage, and the multiplication of narrative perspective are just a few strategies associated with this aesthetic. See Malcolm Bradbury and James McFarland, "The Name and Nature of Modernism," Modernism: A Guide to European Literature (New York: Penguin, 1991) 27. Also see Walter Benjamin, "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction," Illuminations (New York: Schocken Books, 1968) 222-25; Andreus Huyssen, After the Great Divide: Modernism, Mass Culture, Postmodernism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986) 9-11; Linda Hutcheon, A Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory, Fiction (New York: Routledge, 1988) 51; Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Dehumanization of Art (New York: Doubleday 8c Company, 1956) 34-37.

52. See Mbalia, 87.

53. Wideman, "Dead Black Men," 151.

54. Ibid., 150.

55. This discourse actually begins earlier with the publication of the "Moyni-han Report," which placed a premium on policy decisions aimed at establishing black males as patriarchs. See Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Office of Planning and Research, The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, 1965) 16, 29-46.

Arguments seeking to foster policy formation and self-help remedies as solutions to the social ills of black males were especially pervasive in the 1980s and 1990s. See Jewelle Taylor Gibbs, ed., Young, Black, and Male in America: An Endangered Species (Dover, Mass.: Auburn House, 1988); Haki Madhubuti, Black Men—Obsolete, Single, Dangerous? Afrikan American Families in Transition: Essays in Discovery, Solution, and Hope (Chicago: Third World Press, 1990); Brent Staples, Black Masculinity: The Black Male's Role in American Society (San Francisco: Black Scholar Press, 1982) 1-35. For an overview of these discursive trends, see Jacob U. Gordon, introduction, The American Black Male: His Present Status and His Future, ed. Richard G. Majors and Jacob U. Gordon (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1994) ix-xii.

56. Gibbs, 1-2.

57. For more on Jake Wideman's case, see Gary Smith, "Out of the Shadows,"

Sports Illustrated March 17, 1997: 80-99.

58. See Wideman, "The Beginning of Homewood," Damballah, 193-205; Brothers and Keepers (New York: Vintage Books, 1984) 18; Philadelphia Fire (New York: Vintage Books, 1990) 150-51; Fatheralong (New York: Pantheon, 1994)

181-97.

59. Wideman, preface, Damballah.

60. The Million Man March was patriarchal in both its exclusion of women and its reversion to a political rhetoric that focused on the redemption of black men as the basis (or political organizing. See Maulana Karenga, "The Million Man

Notes to Pages 65-71 LSI

March Mission Statement," The Black Scholar25, no. 4 (1995): 2-11. For an overview of the patriarchal and gender essentialist movements that have emerged in recent years, see Michael A. Messner, Politics of Masculinities: Men in Movements (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage) 17-48. Also see Kimmel, 313-21. 61. Wideman, Fatheralong, 64-65.

Chapter 3

1. Calvin Hern ton, Coming Together: Black Power, White Hatred and Sexual Hangups (New York: Random House, 1971) 25.

2. Ibid., 181. Subsequent references to this work are made parenthetically in text.

3. Charles V. Hamilton, "Our Nat Turner and William Styron's Creation," William Styron 's Nat Turner: Ten Black Writers Respond, ed. John Henrik Clarke (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968) 77.

4. Wallace, Black Macho, 69.

5. On Wallace's recanting, see her comments in her "How I Saw It Then and How I See It Now," Black Macho, xvii-xxviii.

6. Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, 47-53; W. J. Cash, The Mind of the South (New York: Knopf, 1941) 119; Martha Hodes, "The Sexualization of Reconstruction Politics: White Women and Black Men in the South after the Civil War," American Sexual Politics: Sex, Gender, and Race since the Civil War, ed. John C. Fout and Maura Tantillo (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993) 59-74; Felipe Smith, American Body Politics: Race, Gender, and Black Literary Renaissance (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1998) 133; Ronald Takaki, Iron Cages: Race and Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (1979; New York: Oxford University Press, 1990) 114-15.

7. Clarence Major, "An Interview with Clarence Major," Callaloo 20, no. 3 (1998): 672-73.

8. Clarence Major, "Licking Stamps and Taking Chances," Contemporary Authors Autobiography Series, vol. 6, ed. Adele Sarkissian (Detroit: Gale Research Company, 1988) 188.

9. Ibid.

10. "Black Power Conference," New Left Notes December 9, 1966: 8.

11. Carmichael and Hamilton, Black Power, 34-35.

12. Clarence Major, "Black Criteria," The Dark and Feeling: Black American Writ-m and Their Work (New York: Third Press, 1974) 147-48; Clarence Major, "Call l< >i Black Mobilization," New Left Notes December 23, 1966: 6.

13. Clarence Major, "Malcolm the Martyr," Negro Digest December 1966: 40. lor another of Major's masculinist articulations of Black Power's mission, see "Black Power Conference," 8.

M. (llarence Major, "They Feared That He Believed," Poems on the Life and Death of Malcolm X (Detroit: Broadside Press, 1969) 6.

15. Clarence Major, In Living Color: The New American Dream," The Nickel Review December 5, 1969: 5.

i<> [bid., 6,

17. Ibid

\H. Bernard Bell, Introducl..... CltrenCi M^jor'l Double Cons< loiisness as a

Blucl Postmodernist Artist," \/>n<i>i imerican Review28, no I (1994) S

19 I i<l< i t<> i Ik i .i|>< In m i i< ■• iimilvinx I'll Mini < luth) thai .n< disi u.ssed lain

152 Notes to Pages 51 80

in this chapter. See Clarence Major, Ml Night Visitors (Boston: Northeastei n I fni

versity Press), 1998. This is the new edition refei en< <<l in •!><■ text.

20. Ishmael Reed, review of All-Night Visitors, Black American Literature Forum 13, no. 2 (1979): 73. Reed's interpretation is echoed in Christopher Lehman Haupt, review of All-Night Visitors, New York Times April 7, 1969: 11.

21. James W. Coleman, "Clarence Major's All-Night Visitors and Calabanic Discourse," African American Review 28, no. 1 (1994): 97.

22. Clarence Major, All-Night Visitors (New York: Olympia Press, 1969) 77. Subsequent references are cited parenthetically.

23. Gunning, Race, Rape, and Lynching, 7.

24. This point has been made in Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, 47-53; Giddings, 26-28; Hodes, 65; Felipe Smith, American Body Politics: Race, Gender, and Black Literary Renaissance (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1998) 128-32; Ida B. Wells, Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells, ed. Alfreda Duster (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972) 51, 64.

25. William H. Grier and Price M. Cobbs, Black Rage (New York: Basic Books, 1968) 64.

26. Cleaver, Soul on Ice, 36.

27. Amiri Baraka, Madheart, Four Black Revolutionary Plays (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1969; London: Marion Boyars, 1998) 89.

28. Ibid., 101.

29. The quote is from Lerone Bennett, "Emancipation Orgasm," The Challenge of Blackness (Chicago: Johnson Publishing, 1972) 288. The Riley piece is also cited here; ibid., 285.

30. Ibid., 268.

31. Ibid., 272-73.

32. Slavoj Zizek, The Sublime Object of Ideology (New York: Verso, 1989) 45-49.

33. Ibid., 47.

34. Cleaver, Soul on Ice, 27.

35. Bernard Bell, preface, All-Night Visitors (Boston, Northeastern University Press, 1998) viii.

36. Catherine MacKinnon, Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984) 149; Andrea Dworkin, Pornography: Men Possessing Women (1979; New York: E. P. Dutton, 1989) 13-24.

37. Susan Jeffords, The Remasculinization of America: Gender and the Vietnam War (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1989) 55-72.

38. Ibid., 72, 73.

39. Ibid., 65-73.

40. Charles Wright, review of The Black Wine, by Hal Bennett, New York Times Book Review May 5, 1968: 36.

41. Howe, "New Black Writers," 136-37.

42. Ibid., 137.

43. Ibid., 146.

44. Bernard Bell, The Afro-American Novel and Its Tradition (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 325; Darryl Dickson-Carr, African American Satire: The Sacredly Profane Novel (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2001) 137-42.

45. Ronald Walcott, "The Writer as Magician/Priest: The Novels of Hal Bennett," Black World July 1974: 79.

46. "Ugly Odyssey," Times Literary Supplement December 11, 1971: 1427.

47. Hal Bennett, Lord of Dark Places (1970; Chappaqua, N.Y.: Turtle Point Press, 1997) 3. Subsequent references to this work are made parenthetically in text.

.... ... Pag( i83 91 188

i,; Di( i ■<•'.< n. i ;,

19 Reid-Pharr, "Tearing.....k>al iFl< ih,' km L2;DwightMcBride,4'Canthe

(>u< < ii Speak? Rau lal Essentialism, Sexuality, and iii<- Problem <>i Authority," Calla loo 22, n«>. I (1998): 868 79; i\<>dcu< k Ferguson, Aberrations in Black: Towards a (hirct o/ Color Critique (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004).

50. Reid-Pharr, "Tearing the Goat's llesh," 104.

51. On Reid-Pharr and McBride, see the previous note. See Ron Simmons, "Baraka \s Dilemma: To Be or Not to Be? "Black Men on Race, Gender, and Sexuality: A Critical Reader (New York: New York University Press, 1999) 317-23.

52. On the "faggot" in Baraka, see Simmons, 317-23.

53. LeRoi Jones, "The Revolutionary Theatre," Home: Social Essays (New York: William Morrow, 1966) 211.

54. Ibid., 213.

55. LeRoi Jones, The Slave, Dutchman and the Slave (New York: William Morrow, 1964) 54.

56. Ibid., 53.

57. Ibid., 67.

58. The Black Poets, ed. Dudley Randall (New York: Bantam, 1971) 315.

59. Carolyn Rodgers, Songs of a Black Bird (Chicago: Third World Press, 1969) 38-39.

60. Major, "The Tender Wrinkle between Her Eyebrows," The Nickel Review, October 24, 1969, 8. Subsequent references to this work will be cited parenthetically in text.

61. Major, "In Living Color," 5-6.

Chapter 4

1. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon, 308.

2. Newton, Revolutionary Suicide, 70, 130.

3. Robert L. Allen, Black Awakening in Capitalist America: An Analytical History (1969; New York: Anchor, 1970).

4. Karenga, The Quotable Karenga, 7.

5. Malachi Andrews, Psychoblackology: Science of Black Movement, Dance, Sports, Soul (Berkeley, Calif.: Achebe Enterprises, 1974) 3.

6. Don L. Lee [Haki Madhubuti], Directionscore: Selected and New Poems (Detroit: Broadside Press, 1971) 100.

7. Sonia Sanchez, We a BaddDDD People (Detroit: Broadside Press, 1970) 15.

8. John Oliver Killens, The Cotillion, or One Good Bull Is Half the Herd (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1971; New York: Ballantine, 1988) 69. Subsequent references to this work are cited parenthetically in text.

9. See Calvin Hernton, Coming Together, 180; Bobby Seale, Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton (New York: Random House, 1970; Baltimore: Black Classics Press, 1991) 395, 397-98; Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story (New York: Pantheon, 1992) 189-96.

10. See Steven Weisenburger, Fables of Subversion: Satire and the American Novel, 1930-1980 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995) 11-12, 1; Frank Palmeri, Satire in Narrative: Petronius, Swift, Melville, andPynchon (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990) 4—5. On dialogism, see Mikhail Bakhtin, "Discourse and the Novel," Dialogic Imagination, 259-422.

I ;i Notes to l\iK<s<)7-IO()

11. First quote from review of The Cotillion, New Yofkil M.iy J9, L971l *><> Sti ond quote, Addison Gayle Jr., The Way of the New World: The Black Novel'" AtMl ica (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press, 1975) 271. Other reviews that neglect the novel's satirical treatment of cultural nationalism include N. Owana, review <>l The Cotillion, Village Voice August 17, 1972: 24; Leonard Fleischer, review of The Cotillion, Saturday ReviewMarch 6, 1971: 36; James R. Frakes, review of The Cotillion, New York Times Book Review January 17, 1971: 4, 34.

12. See Dickson-Carr, African American Satire, 143-49. Wanda Macon, "Killens, John O.," The Concise Oxford Companion to African American Literature, ed. William L. Andrews, Frances Smith Foster, and Trudier Harris (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001) 244-45.

13. Bell, Afro-American Novel, 252.

14. John Oliver Killens, "The Development of the Black Psyche: An Interview with John Oliver Killens," Black Literature Forum 11, no. 3 (1997): 86.

15. On labor, see John Oliver Killens, "Black Labor and the Black Liberation Movement," Black Scholar^, no. 2 (1970): 33-39. On black colleges, see his "The Artist in the Black University," Black Scholar 1, no. 1 (1969): 61-65. He also addresses Black Power's applicability for the theatre in "Broadway in Black and White," African Forum 1 (1966): 66-70. On Killens's activism within the Harlem Writers Guild and nationalist publications, see John Oliver Killens, "Rappin' with Myself," Amistad, ed. John A. Williams and Charles F. Harris (New York: Random House, 1971) 130; Harold Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual: A Historical Analysis of the Failure of Black Leadership (1967; New York: Quill, 1984) 247-48, 498-518, 561-62.

16. Cruse, 235-52.

17. John Oliver Killens, "The Black Culture Generation Gap," Black World August 1973: 24. Subsequent references to this work are cited parenthetically in text.

18. Dubey, Black Women Novelists, 26-27.

19. On poets' widespread interest in reaching a mass audience, see Henderson, introduction, Understanding the New Black Poetry, 16-18; Donald B. Gibson, introduction, Modern Black Poets (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1973) 10-11; Gwendolyn Brooks, Report from Part One (Detroit: Broadside Press, 1972) 183; Dubey, Black Women Novelists, 22. On theatre, see Kimberly Benston, "The Aesthetic of Modern Black Drama: From Mimesis to Methexis," The Theatre of Black Americans: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Errol Hill (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1980) 61-78.

20. Dudley Randall, "Black Poetry," Black Expression, ed. Gayle, 112.

21. Gibson, 10.

22. For more on this influence, see Dubey, Black Women Novelists, 18.

23. Amiri Baraka, Raise, Race, Rays, Raze: Essays since 1965 (New York: Random House, 1971) 152.

24. A similar discourse is discussed in Dubey, Black Women Novelists, 18.

25. For quote, see Baraka, "The Fire Must Be Permitted to Burn Full Up," Raise, Race, Rays, Raze, 118. For illustration of the same logic, see Amiri Baraka, "Islam and Black Art," interview with Marvin X and Faruk, Negro Digest January 1969: 4-7; Amiri Baraka, "Meanings of Black Nationalism," Raise, Race, Rays, Raze, 109.

26. Amiri Baraka, foreword, Black Fire: An Anthology of Afro-American Writing, ed. LeRoi Jones and Larry Neal (New York: William Morrow, 1968) xvii-xviii.

27. Amiri Baraka and Fundi [Bill Abernathy], In Our Terribleness (SomeElements and Meaning in Black Style) (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1970).

28. Quote is from Jennifer Jordan, "Cultural Nationalism in the 1960s: Politics

N.....o Pagi i km) [08 i I ■

MldP.....) Rflfl PolitiM .in.! < ulhn, ( ////,,,/ / \\,/y\ on ///, lunlnuhsm of Hi,- 1960$,

c (I \<ioi|ih Reed Ji (N<w^»ii <......wood Presi 1986) i'.' For an example oi

llariika's mas( uliiiisl ideolog) In Mi! i Madhubuti's 11 ><>n I Lee's) work, sec Don 1,. Lee, Directionscore, Selected and New Poems (Detroit: Broadside Press, 1971) 88. In this section, Madhubuti quotes from the most masculinist passages of Baraka's foreword in Black FKrvand iims locates himself within a discourse that privileges the incantatory power of the black male poet.

29. Direct ion score, 107-8.

30. Ibid., 86.

31. Ibid., 87.

32. For other examples, see Andrews, Psychoblackology, 17-18; Don L. Lee, "Directions for Black Writers," The Black Scholar December 1969: 56-57; Larry Neal, "Black Art and Black Liberation," The Black Revolution (Chicago: Johnson Publishing, 1970) 39-40.

33. Malachi Andrews and Paul T. Owens, Black Language (Los Angeles: Seymour-Smith, 1973) 3.

34. Ibid., 5.

35. Grace Holt, "Metaphor, Black Discourse Style, and Cultural Reality," Ebonies: The True Language of Black Folks (St. Louis: Institute of Black Studies, 1975) 91.

36. Ibid., 91.

37. On citationality, see Jacques Derrida, "Signature Event Context," Margins of Philosophy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982) 325-30, 328. The litera-lure on performativity is far too capacious to deal with fully here. For a concise overview of the literature, see E. Warwick Slinn, "Poetry and Culture: Performativity and Critique," New Literary History 30, no. 1 (1999): 57-74. Also see Andrew Parker and Eve Kosofsky Sedgewick, introduction, Performativity and Performance (New York: Routledge, 1995) 1-16.

38. J. L. Austin, How to Do Things with Words (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975) 4-7.

39. Sara Webster Fabio, "Tripping with Black Writing," The Black Aesthetic, ed. Gayle 178-80; Paula Giddings, "From a Black Perspective: The Poetry of Don Lee," Amistad, ed. Williams and Harris 311-12; June Jordan, "White English: The Politics of Language," Black World August 1973: 6-10; Keorapetse Kgositle, "Dealing with Life," Black World June 1972: 25-27; Geneva Smitherman, "The Power of the Rap: The Black Idiom and the New Black Poetry," Twentieth Century Literature 19 (1973): 259-63.

40. On citationality, see Derrida, 325-30. On performative parody, see Butler, Gender Trouble, 24-25, 134-49.

41. James Stewart, "The Development of the Revolutionary Black Artist," Black Fire, ed. Jones and Neal, 3. For other examples, see Lee "Directions for Black Writers," 56-57; Neal, "Black Art and Black Liberation," 39-40.

42. Poem quoted from Amiri Baraka, The Selected Poetry of Amiri Baraka/LeRoi Jones (New York: William Morrow, 1979) 135. On the riot and trial, see Werner Sollors, Amiri Baraka /Leroi Jones: The Quest for a 'Populist Modernism" (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978) 200-202; Van Deburg, 180.

43. Killens, "Rappin' with Myself," 110.

44. Ibid.

45. Ibid., 111.

46. Florence Turbee, "Black Revolutionary Language," The Liberator 9, no. 1 1 (1969): 9.

47. For quote, see Joel Schraufnegel, The Black American Novel: From Apology to

IS6 Notes to Pages 104-115

Protest (I)eland, Fla.: Everett/Edwards, 1973) 178. Critics who interpret Killens's use of Black Power propaganda more favorably include Gayle, Way of the New World, 261-75; John Henry Jones, "Killens' Fine Sensitive New Novel," review of 'Sippi, Freedomways 4 (1967): 373-75; N. Owana, review of The Cotillion, Village Voice August 17, 1972:24.

I<S. See Julius Lester, "The Media and the Cult of the Personality," Revolution-ai v Notes (New York: R. W. Baron, 1969) 176-80. Or see the less fully elaborated < ritique of performative utterance in Al Young, "A Dance for Militant Dilettantes," Dtcas and Black Bones, ed. Madam David Miller (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970) 1-2. The novel's skepticism resembles more recent critiques of 1960s radicalism sin 11 as Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching! Mass Media in the Making and I hi waking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); David (rross, "Culture, Politics and 'Lifestyle' in the 1960s," Race, Politics, and Culture, ed. Reed, 104-6; Adolph Reed, "The 'Black Revolution' and the Reconstitution <>l Domination," Race, Politics, and Culture, 76-79.

49. Killens, "Rappin' with Myself," 114.

50. On the latter point, see Jordan, "Cultural Nationalism in the 1960s," ed. Adolph Reed Jr. 43-44. Also see Fabio, "Trippin' with Black Writing," 177-79. I < Koi Jones, "Islam and Black Art," NegroDigestJanuary 1969: 8; Clarence Major, Introduction, The New Black Poetry (New York: International Publishers, 1969) I 1-12; Ishmael Reed, introduction, 19 Necromancers from Now (New York: Dou-bleday, 1970) n.p.

51. Jean Carey Bond, "Killens' New Novel A Satire on Black 'Society,'" review ol The Cotillion, Freedomways 11, no. 2 (1971): 204.

52. For examples of the cultural nationalism that is characteristic of this critic ism, see Gayle, introduction, Black Aesthetic, xv-xxiv; Fuller, "Towards a Black Aesthetic," 3-11; Neal, "Black Art and Black Liberation," 31-53.

53. Gayle, Way of the New World, 267.

54. The Karenga text that Gayle references is "Black Cultural Nationalism," Black Aesthetic, ed. Gayle, 32; Gayle, Way of the New World, 261.

55. Gayle, Way of the New World, 261.

56. Ibid., 271.

57. On this possibility, see Weisenburger, 11-12, 17; Palmeri, 4-5. Bakhtin, 259-122.

58. Weisenburger, 17.

59. fohn Oliver Killens, "Downsouth—Upsouth," Black Man's Burden (New fork: Trident, 1965; New York: Pocket Books, 1969) 67.

60. [bid., 68.

61. SeeGiddings, 316-20; Cleaver, Soul on Ice, 189.

(Conclusion

1. Maulana Karenga, The Million Man March Day of Absence Mission State-.... in." Black Scholar2b, no. 1 (1995): 3.

2. Ibid,

"> Foi quote, see Adolph Reed, "Triumph of the Tuskegee Will,'' Village Voice (>< tobei 51, 1995: 36, Also sec [Crista] Brent Zook, "A Manifesto of Sorts for .i Bla< i Feminist Movement," New York Times Magazine November 12, 1995: 86; Elizabeth Alexander, "Kitchen Table Blues," Village VoiceOctobcr 31, L995: 38. Mi. helle w.iii'.« lei's (.ci Serious," Village Voice, < >< tobei L995: K),

Notes to Pages 115-120 137

4. A. Leon Higginbotham, Black Men on Race, Gender, and Sexuality: A Critical Reader, ed. Devon Carbado (New York: New York University Press, 1999) 22-25; Luke Charles Harris, "My Two Mothers, America, and the Million Man March," Black Men on Race, Gender and Sexuality, 54-67.

5. hooks, Black Looks, 99.

6. Houston A. Baker Jr., Workings of the Spirit: The Poetics of Afro-American Women's Writing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Awkward, Negotiating Difference. In the case of Gates, consider his massive editorial work in bringing forth the work of black women writers in the Schomburg Library of Nineteenth-Century Black Women Writers.

7. See Harris, "My Two Mothers," 54-67. Also see Harper, Are We Not Men? One might also consider contemporaneous critiques of absolutist racial politics issued by black gay scholars and artists; see McBride, "Can the Queen Speak?" 363-79; Black Is Black Ain 't: A Personal Journey through Black Identity, dir. Marlon Riggs, California Newsreel, 1995.

8. Robert F. Reid-Pharr, "It's Raining Men," Black Gay Man: Essays (New York: New York University Press, 2001) 165-66.

9. Louis Farrakhan, "We Must Accept the Responsibility That God Has Put upon Us," Washington Post October 17, 1995: A24.

10. Barbara Christian, "But What Do We Think We're Doing Anyway: The State of Black Feminist Criticism (s) or My Version of a Little Bit of History," Changing Our Own Words: Essays on Criticism, Theory, and Writing by Black Women (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1989) 59.

11. Calvin Hern ton, The Sexual Mountain and Black Women Writers: Adventures in Sex, Literature, and Real Life (New York: Anchor, 1990) 42.

12. Dubey, Black Women Novelists, 30, 28.

13. Mel Watkins, "Sexism, Racism, and Black Women Writers," New York Times June 15, 1986: 35.

14. Ishmael Reed, "A Conversation with Ishmael Reed," The Critical Response to Ishmael Reed (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999) 233.

15. Deborah McDowell, "Reading Family Matters," Changing Our Own Words, 84.

16. McDowell, 90.

17. Davis, Angela Davis: An Autobiography, 182.

18. Introduction, New Literary History 31, no. 4 (2000): 621.

19. Stuart Hall, "New Ethnicities," Black British Cultural Studies: A Reader, ed. Houston A. Baker Jr., Manthia Diawara, and Ruth H. Lindeborg (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996) 166; Spillers, "Crisis of the Negro Intellectual," Boundary 221, no. 3 (1994): 75. Also see Kenneth Warren, "The End(s) of African American Studies," American Literary History 12, no. 3 (2000): 637-55.

20. Hall, New Ethnicities, 168.

21. Wendy Brown, States of Injury: Power and Freedom in Late Modernity (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995); Grant Farred, "Endgame Identity? Mapping the New Left Roots of Identity Politics," New Literary History 31, no. 4 (2000): 627-48; Todd Gitlin, "Organizing across Boundaries: Beyond Identity Politics," Dissent 44, no. 1 (1997): 38-41.

22. Walter Benn Michaels, The Shape of the Signifier: ll>(>7 to (he End of History (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2004) 30.