Acknowledgements
Although my name appears on the cover, this book is really the product of
many people's efforts. Geraldine Kikuta showed brave confidence in me in
initiating the project. She then directed it with cool efficiency. Joanna Gertler
supervised the book's production, Christine Alexiou and Sarah Laffey
designed it, Natalie Pavlenko assembled the pictures, and Karen Ross
completed the final editing. Jan Coomber and lan Hundey reviewed the first
draft and made helpful suggestions. Mia London was the editor. Mia's
intelligence, patience, and fastidious attention to detail turned my jagged ideas
to prose.
Most important of all were the contributions made by Jennifer and Sue
Boyko. Jennifer sacrificed many important hours with Dad when I was lost to
the computer. Sue's sound judgement and editorial skills coupled with her
tireless support and encouragement made the book both better and
possible.
Contents
Unit 1 The Nature of Politics
1. Universal Human Needs
Sigmund Freud
Alfred Adier ., Abraham Maslow
Summary
Looking Closer
Spotlight: Mother Teresa (1910- )
2. Government
Types of Governments
Functions of Government
Power of Government
Utopian Governments
Summary
Looking Closer
Spotlight: Desmond Tutu (1931- )
3. Political Philosophies
Plato (428 BC-348 BE)
Thomas Hobbes (15881679)
John Locke (1632-1704)
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Karl Marx (18181883)
Summary
Looking Closer
Spotlight: Charles Darwin (18091882)
4. Constitutions
Functions of a Constitution
Effectiveness of a Constitution
The Informal Constitution of Great
Britain
The Formal Constitution of the United
States
The Canadian Constitution
Summary
Looking Closer	45
Spotlight: Sir John A. Macdonald
(18151891)	47
Case Study # 1 -- Sweden	52
Unit 2 Political Culture	55
5. Citizenship: Rights and Responsibilities 57
Canadian Civil Rights	58
Human Rights	60
Responsibilities	64
Summary	65
Looking Closer	65
Spotlight: Emily Murphy (18681933)	67
6. Political Socialization	71
Family	72
School	73
Religion	74
Peer Groups	74
Social Organization	75
The Media	75
The Effects of Political Socialization	76
Summary	77
Looking Closer	77
Spotlight: Marshall McLuhan (1911-1980) 79
7. Power and Leadership	82
The Five Main Social Institutions	82
Distribution of Power in Society	88
Leadership	88
Summary	91
Looking Closer	92
Spotlight: Pierre Trudeau (1919- )	93
Case Study #2 - Politics and Polls	97
Unit 3 Ideologies	101
8. Modern Ideologies	102
The Political Spectrum
The Major Ideologies
Summary
Looking Closer
Spotlight: Margaret Thatcher (1925- )
9. Democracy
The Evolution of Democracy
Principles of Modem Democracy
Summary
Looking Closer
Spotlight: Jeanne Sauve (1922- )
). Authoritarianism
The Evolution of Authoritarianism
Characteristics of Modem
Authoritarianism
Types of Authoritarian Governments
Methods of Sodal Control in an
Authoritarian State
Summary
Looking Closer
Spotlight: Vladimir Lenin (18701924)
Case Study #3-- China
Unit 4 International Relations
11. International Government Organizations
The United Nations
The Commonwealth
The Organization of American States
North Atlantic Treaty Organization Or^Sn'QS&u'h dit^eWeum exporting
Countries
European Economic Community
Summary
Looking Closer
Spotlight: Lester Pearson (18971972)
12. International Non-Government
Organizations
Multinational Corporations
International Charities
International Political Action Groups
Religion
International Professional Groups
International Sports
Summary
Looking Closer
Spotlight: Rick Hansen (1957- )
Case Study #4--McDonald's Restaurants
Unit 5 War and Peace
13. Types and Causes of War
Types of War
Causes of War
Summary
Looking Closer
Spotlight: Idi Amin (1925- )
14. The Evolution of War
Non-Army War
Phalanx Army War
Mass Army War
Technological Army War
Limited Army War
Summary
Looking Closer
Spotlight: Adolf Hitler (18991945)
15. Prospects for Peace
Types of Peace
Balance of Power
Treaties
Disarmament
World Government
Individual Initiative
Canada and the Peace Process
Summary
Looking Closer
Spotlight: Robert Kennedy (19261968)
Case Study #5-The Vietnam War
Photo Credits
Index
The Nature
of Politics
il

H
..uman beings are social animals. We live, work, and play in
groups. Much of our history is the result of our long search for the best
way to organize ourselves. The search has sometimes led to wars, massacres, and assassinations. But it has also resulted in the creation of ^'vs, constitutions, and peaceful traditions.
Politics is the process that people use to organize themselves, their
societies, and the world. Politics is essentially concerned with the
distribution of power. Any act that affects the organization of people or
the distribution of power is political. Political acts include the creation of
a new school course, the election of a government, and a declaration of war.
Political science is the study of politics. It is a social science, like
psychology, philosophy, economics, anthropology, and sociology. Social scientists study various aspects of people and society and try to understand why people live and act as they do. Psychologists, for -nstance, examine the inner workings of the human mind. Anthropologists,
on the other hand, study humanity's early development to try to
find patterns in human behaviour. Because all the social sciences are
related, a study of political science often overlaps with the other
disciplines.
All social scientists use similar methods to arrive at their
conclusions. They conduct research through polls, interviews, observations,
and questionnaires. They collect and analyse information in light
of previous research and commonly held beliefs. They then make
conclusions and present them in books, articles, or lectures. Most
political scientists are associated with universities or work for
governments.
The conclusions that political scientists reach are unlike those of
mathematicians, chemists, or physicists. In chemistry, for example, two
parts hydrogen and one part oxygen will always form water.
Conclusions in political science, however, can always be questioned by
other political scientists who reach equally valid interpretations using
the same data.
One challenge that political scientists face is to distinguish between
political facts and political values. A political fact is something that
cannot be disputed. For example, "Sir John A. Macdonald was Canada's
first prime minister" is a fact. A political value is an opinion. "Sir John A.
Macdonald was Canada's best prime minister" is a political value.
Everybody has political values but valid conclusions can only be based
on political facts.
Political science is important because its conclusions help us to
understand ourselves and the world around us. It helps us to understand
why we have the type of government and laws that we do, and how to
change them. It helps us understand why wars occur and how to avoid
them. Most important, political science helps us understand our role in
the world as individuals and as a society. Perhaps, if more people
understood these ideas, we might see less conflict and more
compromise.
This unit will examine some theories on which political science is
based. It will ask you to consider what needs are common to all people
and the political ideas, rules, and structures that people have created to
try to address those needs.
UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
Universal Human Needs

als respond to their needs by using their
rts. Human beings, however, are more
[ex than animals. How we respond to and try
Ifill our needs is also more complex.
inoophers, psychologists, and political scientists we been discussing human needs for centuries.
litical scientists believe that it is necessary to
derstand human needs to understand politics.
A political philosophies, constitutions, and gov- er ment systems are, after all, attempts to address
h. nan needs.
We often confuse needs with wants. Many of
u say, for instance, that we need that new sweater
o ieed to see that movie. In fact, we only want
these things. A need is something that is essential
for survival. A want is something that might make
our lives more pleasant. Remembering this difference
significantly reduces the number of things
many of us believe are needs.
Universal needs are things that everyone
needs to survive. For example, everybody needs
food and water. In most climates, we need clothing
and shelter. Beyond these universal needs, social
scientists, including political scientists, often disagree
about what things are needs and which are
wants. Psychologists, in particular, have examined
universal human needs. This chapter will look at
three psychologists' theories of human needs.

A wounded child is rescued
after a car bomb destroys
his east Beirut neighbourhood
in 1986. Times of crisis
often force people to reassess
their needs.
CHAPTER 1: Universal Human Needs
Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud is probably the most famous
psychologist in the world. He was born in Austria
in 1856, the son of a wool merchant. At a young
age, he became a doctor. In his office in Vienna, he
found that many of his patients had physical
symptoms, such as migraines or stomachaches, for
which he could find no physical cause. Freud
decided to dedicate his life to understanding
human mental health. His studies led to new ideas
about human needs.
Freud's most valuable contribution to the
study of mental health and needs was his theory
about the power of the unconscious mind. He
argued that the human mind is made up of three
distinct parts: the id, the ego, and the super ego. The id, he said, is the child in us. It seeks pleasure
through food, drink, sex, and so on. It wants
continuous and immediate satisfaction of its
desires. The super ego is the parent. It is our
conscience and constantly battles with the id. It
tries to restrain the id's animalistic drives through
moral and cultural standards. The ego is the adult
within us. It is the referee between the drives of the
id and the restrictions of the super ego. The ego
tries to satisfy the needs of the other two parts of
the mind.
Fig. 1.1 Freud's Theory of the Unconscious Mind
Freud argued that, like an iceberg, most of our needs
are hidden beneath the surface of our conscious
mind.
Consciousness
Sigmund Freud at work in his Vienna office. Freud is
generally considered the founder of modem psychoanalysis.

The ego, Freud suggested, is the only part of
our mind that we are aware of. It is our conscious
mind. The other two parts exist at a subconscious
level. Because we are aware only of our conscious
mind, we are unaware of the pressures exerted by
the id and the super ego. Consequently, we actually
have little understanding of or control over our
needs and many of our actions.
Freud argued that while the id and the super
ego seldom reveal themselves to the conscious
mind, the struggle between the two emerges
through dreams, hypnosis, and sometimes through
free association. Free association is an exercise in
which a person is given a word and asked to blurt
out the first thought that comes to mind. For
example, if a psychologist says "pain," and the
patient responds, "parent," the two are clearly
connected in the patient's mind. In free association
exercises, the pattern of words is important rather
than individual responses.

UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
^----PTResubconcious mind also reveals itself ^prough slips of the tongue. For example, consider ^teneone who says, "The party was terrible--I ^^an tenificr' Freud said that the person's ^^Bconscious mind let his or her true opinion slip ^ut and that the ego tried to be polite and cover it
ip. These verbal slips are called Freudian slips.
J Many psychologists have criticized Freud's ^methodology and conclusions. However, his theof n'e; about the power of the unconscious mind
[ remjin widely accepted. Political scientists use
| Freud's theories to understand political philosophic'. governments, and ideologies that assume
people cannot consciously control their thoughts or
ictions. Consequently, they should not be trusted < to control their political affairs, r
factor that shapes personality is a person's
upbringing. A healthy personality is possible only if the child is neither pampered nor neglected.
A negative personality may lead a person to
try to fulfill his or her need for competence and
superiority in destructive ways, such as crime or
violence. A positive personality may lead a person
to work for the good of society. Only a person with
a positive or altruistic personality is able to
cooperate with others for the good of all rather than
for the fulfillment of selfish, personal goals.
The differences between Freud and Adier arc
significant for political scientists. Adier's theories
help political scientists understand political philosophies,
governments, and ideologies that assume
people can be trusted to conduct their own political
affairs. Consequently, they should be given more
political power.
------^^^^* Alfred Adier believed people's greatest need is for <
feeling of competence and security.
'.-.; young man, Alfred Adier was one of Freud's ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^_^__^^^^^^_
students. He agreed that people's needs and the ^^^^^^^^^^^^^HB^^"^ "^||^^^H my they try to fulfill them are affected by factors ^^^^^^^^^^^RT 1^^!
kypnd their control. He disagreed, however, ^^^^^^^^^^^^^Hpl l|^B
about what these factors are and how much control ^^^^^^^^^^^^9 'people have over them. ^
AdJer argued that our most important need is
fcr a feeling of competence and superiority. We
need to fee) that we are in control over the people and environment around us. We are influenced by
other unconscious impulses as well, but the need to
it in control is strongest.
| Adfer believed that a person's personality
j Verted how he or she tried to satisfy the need for
t competence and superiority. He argued that
personality is shaped by three factors. The first is
ileredity. Heredity is the influence of a person's (Hirtic make-up, the characteristics passed down "cm parents and ancestors. The second factor is ""-wnnient. AdJer included a person's home, 'e^hpourhood, community, and society as a Wr in his defininon of environment. The third
Abraham Maslow
Abraham Maslow was an American who did most
of his work in the 1950s. Both Freud and Adier
based much of their work on the study of mentally
ill people. Maslow studied healthy people. He
believed that observing healthy people would
more accurately reveal the true nature of human
needs.
Maslow believed that people are not, as Freud
and Adier had argued, motivated by unconscious
needs. Rather, they are motivated by a conscious
desire to achieve happiness and fulfillment.
Maslow described happy and fulfilled people as
having reached a state of self-actualization.
Maslow argued that there are various levels of
needs. Once someone reaches a particular level, he
or she moves on to the next. The state of selfactualization
jsJit_thetopJ3£JdiisJiieiarcby^afneed^
Fig. 1.2 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Self-Actualization
Need for Order
Need to Explore and Understand
Need for Self Esteem
Need for Love and Belonging
Need for Safety and Security
Needs of Survival
Needs of survival are necessities such as food,
water, warmth, and shelter. Little else is important
if these needs are not fulfilled. Once they are met,
people then consider the need for safety and
security. Everyone needs to feel free from physical
and psychological harm. The need for love and
belonging, the next stage, refers to people's need to
feel loved, accepted, and part of a group.
Self-esteem means a feeling of self-confidence and
self-worth. A person without self-esteem lacks the
confidence to try new things. The need to explore
and understand refers to the desire for knowledge
about oneself and the world. The need for order
means the ability to rely on a steady job, long-term
friendships, a stable government, and so on.
Once all of these needs are met, a person is
able to reach the state of self-actualization.
Self-actualized people are realistic. They have a
firm grasp of their abilities and know what is
possible to achieve. They are not susceptible to
fads or peer pressure because they accept themselves
as they are. Consequently, they are able to
focus attention on issues that involve the community,
nation, and the world.
According to Maslow, people who are stuck at
one level of need cannot develop properly. They
may develop personality disorders. A person with
no self-esteem, for example, may withdraw and
become depressed, alcoholic or, in extreme cases, violent in an effort to feel stronger. Events in a
person's life beyond his or her control can move
him or her down the hierarchy of needs. A war,
natural disaster, or major economic shift cbuld
mean that a self-actualized person suddenly has to
look for food and shelter. Maslow argued that
people are never satisfied with their lot in life. They
always strive to move up the hierarchy of needs. He
called this belief his grumble theory. For most
people, he believed, setbacks are only temporary
stops on the road to self-actualization.
Maslow's theories became very popular in the
1960s. Many people wanted to put their faith in
Maslow because he said they controlled their lives,

UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
|in Freud and Adier who said they were	stand various political theories and to study the
I by unconscious impulses. Political	evolution of different countries and political
ised Maslow's theories to help under-	systems.
Abraham Maslow believed
that people are driven by a
need to reach a state of
self-actualization.
HERMAN COPYRIGHT 1988 UNIVERSAL
PRESS SYNDICATE. Reprinted
with permission. All
rights reserved.
CHAPTER V. Universal Human Needs
Summary
Fulfilling our needs is essential to our lives. Some
needs are shared by all human beings. Theories
about what needs are truly universal and how
much control we have over our needs and actions
are important parts of psychology. Psychology in
turn is an important part of political science.
This chapter has outlined briefly the theories
of three prominent psychologists. There are many
other theories as well. Each theory represents
different ideas about human nature. Ideas about
political ideologies, laws, systems of government,
even about war and peace are all based on different
ideas of human nature.

Looking Closer

Summarize
1. Define the following terms:
a. politics
b. political science
c. political fact
d. political value
e. needs
if. wants
g. universal human needs
2. Why is it necessary to study universal human
needs to understand politics?
3. Explain the main functions of the id, the ego,
and the super ego.
4. According to Adier, what three factors shape
personality?
5. Describe the characteristics of a self-actualized
person.
Organize
1. In your notebook, copy and complete the
chart below to compare the theories of Freud,
Adier, and Maslow.
Needs Significance of
the Unconscious
Mind

Unfulfilled
Needs
Freud
Adier
Maslow
2. Make a list of things that you think are
universal human needs. Rank them in order of
priority from most to least important. Compare
your list with others. In groups, discuss
the possible political significance of an^ differences in priority- Analyse
1. Examine a newspaper and find three state
ments of political fact and three statements c
political value.
2. Which theory presented in this chapter do yo
think is most valid? Defend your opinion.
3. Research and write a short report about
theory of universal human needs that was n
discussed in this chapter. Compare that theo
with either Freud's, Adier's, or Maslow's.

UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
Spotlight: Mother Teresa (1910- )
^hen Calcutta was the capital of India, it was called the City of
ilaces because of its elaborate public buildings and mansions.
'ter the capital was moved to Bombay in 1911, Calcutta went into
'dine. Many of Calcutta's citizens are still very rich. But living
'side and around the pockets of wealth are millions of people who
e desperately poor. Over one million homeless people live in
ilcutta. These men, women, and children are born, live, and die in
? streets. A Catholic nun named Mother Teresa has dedicated her
? to helping the poor of Calcutta, as well as poor and troubled
opie in other parts of the world. Many people consider her a living
.nt.
Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu was born in 1910, in what is now
goslavia. As a young girl, she decided to become a nun and
iicate her life to missionary work. When she was eighteen, she
led the Loretto Abbey in Ireland and, while there, developed a
sination with India. After only a few months in Ireland, she
ured a teaching position in India. She taught geography for the
:t thirty years at St. Mary's High School in Calcutta. For many
:rs, she was also the school's principal. In 1937, she adopted the
ie Teresa.
One hot day in September 1946, Mother Teresa was travelling
ie on a train. She suddenly had the feeling of being in the
sence of God. She later explained that God had told her to give
lelf to the poor. After a good deal of prayer and reflection, she
lested and was granted permission to work outside the convent
>ol. She briefly trained as a nurse and then moved to the slums of
;utta.
Mother Teresa was distressed by the poverty of the children and
ded to help by forming a school. Her first school was a bench
t a plum tree where she taught children to read by writing in the
with a stick. She soon had over forty students. She eventually
aged to rent a few rooms in an old house and quickly took over
and more of the house. In 1950, the owner gave her the house
sr school and missionary work. It was named the Mother House
' Missionaries of Charity. Its purpose was to supply the basic
m needs of food and shelter to the homeless and starving.
)ne morning, Mother Teresa saw an old woman lying on the
/ulk, dressed in dirty rags. Her breathing was weak and
shallow. Too sick to defend herself, rats had partially eaten one of
her feet. Mother Teresa hailed a taxi and took the woman to the
nearest hospital but officials refused to admit her. Calcutta's other
hospitals also refused to accept her. Angered and saddened,
Mother Teresa took the dying woman to the mission. She made her
final hours peaceful, warm, and dignified.
The experience led Mother Teresa to form a separate centre for
dying, destitute people. It was called the Place of the Pure Heart. The
centre was met with violent opposition. Many worried about the
spread of disease in their neighbourhood. Others claimed that
Mother Teresa's real goal was to convert Hindus to Christianity. The
courage of Mother Teresa and her nuns won out and the centre
thrived. She went on to open many centres for the dying destitute.
Over half of the people who come to the centres are now cured of the
diseases that brought them there.
By the early 1960s, Mother Teresa had formed and staffed a
number of missions, schools, mobile medical units, family planning
centres, orphanages, and centres for the dying destitute throughout
Mother Teresa holds a child
during a visit to one of her
many orphanages.
10	UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
India. While admitting that much was left to do in India, she decided
to reach out to the poor of other nations. In 1965, Mother Teresa
opened a mission in Caracas, Venezuela. By 1970, she had missions
on five continents.
All of Mother Teresa's work is supported through donations. She
believes that through her prayers God provides all that is
necessary. Besides the nuns and medical personnel, volunteers staff
the missions. Many people from Canada and elsewhere spend their
holidays working at missions.
Mother Teresa's work has made her world-famous. She has
been applauded by government, religious, and business leaders. In
1979, she received the Nobel Peace Prize. The prize is given every
year to the person who more than any other advances the cause of
world peace. She has also travelled to Canada and many other
countries to solicit donations and encourage greater support for
disadvantaged people.
Perhaps poverty will never be ended. Children may continue to
know hunger. Perhaps many people will always know the
humiliation and pain of homelessness. Nonetheless, Mother Teresa
has helped address those problems by fulfilling the universal
human needs of millions of people every day.

Recall
1. Why did Mother Teresa decide to work in
India?
2. Describe the event that led Mother Teresa to
dedicate her life to the poor.
3. Why did some people oppose the establishment
of the Place of the Pure Heart?
4. a. Explain some of the activities in which
Mother Teresa is involved.
b. Who pays for these activities?
5. Why does Mother Teresa travel to various
countries?
Consider
1. How is Mother Teresa's work related to
Maslow's theory of the hierarchy of needs?
2. How does Mother Teresa promote international
cooperation and understanding?
3. Should a government be responsible for
ensuring that the universal human needs of its
citizens are fulfilled? Discuss your answer.
4. Why do you think some Canadians spend
their holidays working as volunteers in
Mother Teresa's missions? Would you volunteer
at one of the missions for two weeks?
Explain your answer.

CHAPTER 1: Universal Human Needs
Government

In William Golding's novel. The Lord of the Flies, a
group of boys find themselves stranded alone on a
desert island. They have plenty of food and water
but soon realize there is little hope of rescue. They
begin to organize themselves to ensure their
survival. The group decides to follow certain rules
and to create a system to establish and enforce the
rules. In other words, they decide they need a
system of government.
Some type of decision-making process
emerges whenever political groups are formed.
The group can be as small as students deciding to
hold a dance at their school or as large as a world
organization promoting world peace. Once a group
decides it needs a decision-making process, it then
forms an organization to carry out that process.
This organization is a government.
A government is a political decision-making
organization that allows for common action. It
enables people to do as a group what they might
not be able to do as individuals. Individuals, for
example, cannot defend their country against
invaders. A government, however, can create a
national defence force.
A government is different from a state. In
Canada, the word government refers to the
political organizations that exist in each municipality,
each province, and federally in Ottawa.
New governments are formed at each level after
each election. The word state refers to the
collection of publicly controlled organizations,
such as the government, the bureaucracy, the
courts, the police, the armed forces, the educational
sytems, and others, that make a country unique.
The state remains constant regardless of changes in
governments.
There are many types of governments but
they all have some common traits. By studying
governments, political scientists better understand
how groups of people are organized and how well
certain types of organizations fulfill universal
human needs.
Types of Governments
It is easier to understand the governments of the
world if you classify them into various types based
on how they exercise power. Most political
scientists suggest that there are two main types of
governments.

on
An authoritadan.^pvernment holds all political
power in the country. People have little or no
control over how they are governed or any choice
in who their political leaders are. People exist to
serve the government and the state. Many
countries in the world have authoritarian governments,
including Chile, Libya, and Cuba.
In countries with democratic governments, the people hold political power. They affect how
they are governed and choose their political
leaders. The government and state serve the
people. There are democratic governments today
in a number of countries, including Canada, the
United States, Japan, and India.
It is important to understand that govern-

UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
ments never adhere strictly to the definitions we try
to impose on them. Many political scientists, for
example, classify Nicaragua's government as
authoritarian. Nicaraguans, nonetheless, elect
town mayors, hold public meetings that are critical
of the government, and buy Nicaraguan newspapers
that criticize government policy. South Africa,
on the other hand, appears to be democratic. It has
a parliament and elected officials. However, the
majority of South Africans are not allowed to vote
in federal elections and have no control over the
laws under which they live. In practice, all
governments fall between the extremes of pure
authoritarianism and pure democracy.

The United Nations General
Assembly. The United Nations
reflects the idea that,
despite various styles of
governing, all governments
share many goals and
beliefs.
Thousands of Philippines citizens
gather to support the
anniversary of the "People
Power Revolution" that
ousted the authoritarian
government of Ferdinand
Marcos and installed Corazon
Aquino. The importance
of people power was
apparent again in the
sweeping changes in eastern
Europe in 1989.
CHAPTER 2: Govern merit
Functions of Government
Regardless of whether governments are authoritarian,
democratic, or fall somewhere between, they
all perform three basic functions: legislative,
executive, and judicial.
The legislative arm of government proposes
bills, debates them, amends them, and finally
passes them into law. A bill is a proposed law and
is often called a piece of legislation. A law is a rule
set by government that-mustbe-obeyed.
Parliament is Canada's legislative arm. It is
made up of the House of Commons and the Senate.
In the United States, the Congress is the legislative
branch of government. It comprises the House of
Representatives and the Senate. In both nations, a
bill must pass through both parts of the legislature
before it becomes a law.
The executive is the leader of the government.
It proposes bills and recommends amendments. It
also implements and enforces laws. The executive
is also responsible for making most government
appointments, such as ambassadors, senior members
of the civil service, and others. It is also
responsible for the day-to-day decisions that are a
part of governing.
In Canada, the executive is the Prime Minister,
the Cabinet, and the governor general. The prime
minister is the head of the government and the
Queen, is the head of state. The Governor General
is her representative. In the United States, the
executive is the president, who is both head of
government and head of state.
The judiciary carries out the third function of
government. It ensures that all laws passed by the
legislature adhere to the laws and traditions of the
country. If it finds that a new law is improper or
illegal, it has the power to disallow that law. The
judiciary is often the highest court in a country. If
an individual is not satisfied with a decision made
by a lower court, he or she may appeal the case to a

Members of the Canadian Supreme Court prepare to hear a case in August 1989. The
Supreme Court's decisions shape the type of society in which Canadians live.
UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
/
higher court. In Canada, a case may be appealed all
the way to the Supreme Court. Its decisions are
always final.
' The Supreme Courts in both Canada and the
United States handle the judiciary functions of
government. In both countries, decisions by the Supreme Court are always respected by the
citizens and by the executive and legislative I branches of the governments.
In Canada and the United States, three distinct
parts of government handle the three functions of
government. Each part checks that the other two
I parts are performing efficiently and legally and are
addressing the needs of the people. This separation
of power, which the Americans call a system of
, checks and balances, exists in most democracies. I In many countries with authoritarian govern[ments,
however, one government body carries out
all three functions. The executive is all-powerful.
Legislative bodies may exist, but they have little or
no power. The judiciary is often not independent
but simply confirms all executive decisions. An
authoritarian government, like all governments,
nonetheless fulfills the three functions of government.

Power of Government
Power is the ability to influence the thoughts and
actions of others. We can measure a government's
power by the extent to which its laws influence the
society it governs.
A government's power is affected_bY the type
of government it is. A puppet government/for
example, is a national government that is controlled
by a foreign government. It does little but
carry out the instructions of the foreign government.
A puppet government may appear to be very
powerful while in reality it has little power. From
1964 to 1973, the government of South Vietnam
was a puppet government of the United States.
After the Second World War, the Soviet Union
controlled puppet governments in many countries
in eastern Europe.
A government's power is affected by the
circumstances in its country or jurisdiction. The
Lubican Cree, for instance, have their own
government in Alberta. But the power of their
government, the band council, is restricted because
tts'pcople are surrounded by Canadian territory
and affected by Canada's laws, economy, and
cultures. The power of the Canadian government
is, in turn, restricted by the size, wealth, and
international standing of the United States. No
Canadian government can act without considering
American cultural, economic, and defence interests.
The decisions of the American government
are themselves influenced by global interests and
predictions about the Soviet Union's reactions to
events and actions.
The nature of the society it governs affects a
government's power, although this nature can
change over time. Sweden has a long tradition of
government involvement in social programs. For
example, the government is responsible for day
care and health care. In the United States, on the
other hand, the government has far fewer social
programs. Clearly, Swedes welcome more government
intervention in their lives than do Americans.
Despite
the factors that restrict their power,
governments can still use a combination of four
methods to exercise power. First, in many countries,
a government's power is based on a
traditional respect for the state and the law. People
may grumble and even protest against laws they do
not like but very few advocate disobeying laws,
overthrowing the government, or disrupting the
state. This is the case in Canada, the United States,
Iceland, and many other countries with long
traditions of democracy.
In other countries, the citizens do not believe
that the government has their best interests at

CHAPTER 2: Government
In 1986, members of the
Lubicon Cree band
blocked access to disputed
lands in northern
Alberta. They wanted to
dramatize their claim to
over 200 kill? of land and
force the Alberta government to negotiate.
heart. They are less likely to obey the law because
of tradition. Their governments must either try to
establish this tradition or use other methods to
exercise power. China, for example, has no
tradition of democracy. Many Chinese citizens
believe laws are intended to preserve power for the
government rather than to protect the best interests
of the citizens. *--
Second, a government may Jry^to" exercise
power through consensus. A consensus,, is an
opinion shared by the majority of people:''Democratic
governments strive to learn what the
consensus is before they create a law addressing an
issue. They reason that if most people want a law,
then they will probably obey that law. Democratic
governments may also pass laws that they think are
necessary and then try to persuade the citizens of
their necessity. For example, in 1989, the Mulroney
government announced a new federal sales tax. It
then tried to form a nation-wide consensus about
its merits. Sometimes a consensus is impossible to
form in any country.
Governments of some other countries, particularly
authoritarian governments, pass laws without
trying to establish a consensus. They use other
methods to persuade people to obey laws.
including fear of punishment and physical control.

Third, all governments appeal to the emotion' of the governed and try to promote nationalism
Nationalism is a feeling of pride in one's natior
Symbols such as flags and anthems that remin
people of their country are prominent in school
public buildings, sporting events, and at evei
gathering of political leaders. Governments realiz that widespread feelings of nationalism may ofte
render people less inclined to oppose laws i
unpopular government actions. However, stroi
emotions can be easy to stir up but difficult
sustain. This difficulty can reduce the effectivenc
of this method of exercising power.
Finally, some governments resort to forcel
exercise power. In most countries^vith democra
governments, the armed forces and police h;
minor roles. Many authoritarian govemrnei however, use the armed forces or police to ens
people never question, let alone disobey, laws government officials. People who publicly
ition laws or decisions can be arrested,
ssed, and sometimes even killed.
Force is usually very effective in protecting
mment power. Thousands of political prison- are now in jails in Cuba, Chile, South Africa,
elsewhere. Historically, though, force will
allow a government to maintain power for.
People eventually always reject the use of
3
All governments use a combination of tradiconsensus,
emotion, and force to exert power.
ough these methods are effective, governts
realize that their power and continued
:ence depend on the support of a large portion ie people. Throughout history, every govern- it that has not earned the willing support of the Di-ity of the governed has fallen.

Utopian Governments
A difference always exists between theory and
practice. Most governments address the needs of
people theoretically but in practice the needs of the
people are often considered less important than the
needs of the government or the state. This
difference between theory and practice has frustrated
many people. Some people have written of
futuristic perfect governments and societies.
Often, the writers do not intend to provide a
realistic blueprint for an alternative society but
rather to criticize the inadequacies of their current
governments. They hope that their writing will
bring about change. An ideal or perfect society is
called a Utopia. Ironically, the word Utopia is
derived from the Greek words meaning 'no
place'.
'i1

In Buenos Aires, Argentina,
a group called "Mothers of
Argentine Disappeared
Persons" demonstrated in
1983. They were protesting
the government's use of
force in the mid-1970s that
resulted in the murder of
thousands of citizens who
had opposed government
politics.
CHAPTER 2: Government
FR1;The first important Utopian novel was written
by the English lawyer, court adviser, and philosopher,
Thomas More. His two-volume book, called Utopia, was published in 1517. More's society exists
on a desert island and comprises fifty-four cities.
The government is a democracy. It consists of a
nationally elected assembly that oversees local
assemblies chosen from among each community's
main families. The government controls the
economy. There is no unemployment, no shortages
or surpluses of food or other goods, no private
property, and no need for money. It is a classless
society with complete equality of wealth. People strive for intellectual growth rather than t^ accumulate material goods or status. More's
Utopia was more a criticism of his society and
government than a description of some faraway
place or a real plan for a better future.
Edward Bellamy was an American author and
journalist who in 1898 wrote a book entitled Looking
Backward. Bellamy tells the story of a man who falls
asleep in 1887 and awakens in the year 2000. He
finds that all of the problems of 1887, such as child
labour, unemployment, and poverty, have been
solved.
In 2000, society is organized like a large
corporation. After finishing school, everyone
becomes a labourer for three years. The most
talented are then moved to more skilled positions.
Those with less physically demanding jobs work
longer hours. Money has been replaced by a credit
system and everyone shares an equal portion of the
nation's wealth. Because economic competition
and social classes have been eliminated, people are
motivated solely by the desire to serve their
community and each other. Except for controlling
the economy, the government has a very small role
in society. Government consists of a democratically
elected board whose main job is to keep the
peace with neighbouring nations. Artists, engineers,
inventors, and other talented people have
more prestige and power than politicians.
The first important Utopian novel of
twentieth century was A Modern Utopia writte
American H.G. Wells in 1904. Wells's vi
differed from More's and Bellamy's becau;
imagines a worldwide Utopian state. The of
describe an ideal community existing in
otherwise unchanged world.
The government in A Modern Ulop authoritarian and is run by a ruling class calle' Samurai. It comprises teachers, doctors, law
and other professionals. Political leaders are pi
by and from this group. All citizens are vegeta
and are forbidden to use alcohol, drugs,
tobacco. Women and men are equal. Peopi
able to move to find work because all nal borders have disappeared. There is no p:
property. Although some private enterpri
allowed, the Samurai control all major cor
tions. Permanent world peace is finally po
because there are no other nations to coi
against.
All Utopian novels describe a perfect si
and government. They share a common visic
society of peace and social harmony. The v
yearn for a society without greed, hunger, 1
lessness, war, or any other problems that pi
their countries at the time of writing and r
with us today. They believed that some fc
government would solve the world's and hi;
ty's problems and fulfill the needs of both,
Summary
Although some types of governments are p
ble to others, for most people, the idea of
without government is unthinkable. We
governments to do what individuals
because governments allow for common
We expect governments to allow our neec
fulfilled.
By writing Utopian novels, critics have voiced
their opinions of what perfect governments are.
These novels have influenced political philosophers
and have helped to create some of the
political philosophies and ideologies on which
many governments are based. Perhaps perfect
government is not possible. But it is worth trying to
improve those that we have in order to come as
close to perfection as possible.
Perhaps that is why politics is sometimes
called the art of the possible.

Looking Closer

Summarize
1. Explain the difference between the government
of Canada and the state of Canada.
2. How does the role of the individual differ in
countries with authoritarian governments and
with democratic governments?
(3.) State the main functions of the three branches
of government.
4. Describe three factors that influence the
amount of power a government has.
5. State and explain four methods that governments
use to exercise and maintain power.
6. \a. Why do authors write about Utopian
governments and societies?
b. Summarize the Utopias described by
Thomas More, Edward Bellamy, and H.G.
Wells.
Organize
Divide the class into groups. Pretend you are
marooned on a desert island with enough food
and water to survive indefinitely. Come up
with a list of rules that you think are necessary

1.
for your survival. Beside each rule, state why it
is necessary.
2. The chapter describes four ways in which
governments exert their power. Design a chart
that shows how the Canadian government
uses each method. Use the same chart to
describe how your school's administration
exercises power.
Analyse
Which type of government is best suited to
fulfill human needs? Explain your answer.
In groups, write a plan for a Utopian society.
Describe in detail the government, the economy,
and the roles of individuals in your
Utopia. Be prepared to explain and defend
your decisions.

i.

2.
In class, listen to "Imagine" by John Lennon.
As a class, discuss Lennon's Utopian vision
and compare it with More's, Wells's, and
Bellamy's. Bring other poems, songs, or
stories to class that present other Utopian
visions.

3.

^
-y
0
CHAPTER 2: Government
Spotlight: Desmond Tutu (1931
One warm, summer's afternoon in Johannesburg, South Africa, a
grandmother was preparing lunch for her grandchildren while
babysitting tor the day. Suddenly, loud screams startled her. She
opened the front door to see a police van speeding away and her
six-year-old grandson lying dead on the porch. He had been shot in
the back by a police officer. The police officer was white. The boy was black. This is the face of apartheid in South Africa.
Apartheid is the South African system of racial segregation. It
restricts the civil rights of people of colour (Blacks, Indians, and
people of mixed race) and segregates housing, education, and
employment. The Dutch began apartheid soon after they colonizec
South Africa in 1652 and the English continued the system when the^ took over the colony in 1902. Then as now, whites make u]
approximately 20 per cent of the population.
Desmond Tutu has devoted his life to ending apartheid. He we born in the gold mining town of Klerksdorp in 1931. His father was
high school teacher and his mother was a domestic servant for
rich, white family. After attending the University of Johannesburg, \ became a teacher. He taught high school for three years. In 1957,1
and several other teachers resigned to protest the second-ra
education that black children received.
Tutu then attended St. Peter's Theological College and w
ordained an Anglican priest in 1961. Besides his clerical duties,
lectured at a university in South Africa and became widely kno
as an articulate and witty critic of apartheid.
In 1976, Desmond Tutu was appointed the Bishop of Lesot
Lesotho is an independent country that is surrounded by So
Africa. At the same time, black students in a number of towns < cities in South Africa began to protest against being taugh
Afrikaans, a language most did not speak. They were also upset
the South African government allocated an average of $1100 toi
education of every white student but only about $445 tor every b' student. They boycotted their classes and marched.
Tutu urged the students to remain non-violent. He wrote to S
African Prime Minister B.I. Voorster assuring him that the pro
were spontaneous and not led by outsiders. He asked the P
Minister to control the police. Nonetheless, the protest bee
violent. Many secondary and elementary school students
20	UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
arrested. Some were tortured in prison. Six hundred were killed by the police.
In 1978, Tutu became the first black Secretary-General of the
South African Council of Churches (SACC). It represented 13 million
South Africans, 80 per cent of whom were black. Under Tutu's
influence, the SACC became a new, strong voice in the anti-apartheid
movement. It raised money to help the families of political
prisoners and pay for funerals of those killed in peaceful protest
marches. Scholarships were established for promising black
students. The SACC tried to persuade the government to allow
blacks to vote in federal elections.
In 1979, Tutu travelled to Europe to talk about the situation in
South Africa. During a Danish television interview, he asked the
world's governments to boycott South African products in order to
pressure the South African government to end apartheid. When he
Archbishop Desmond Tutu condemns violence during an address to a crowd in South
Africa.
CHAPTER 2: Government	21

returned to South Africa, his passport was taken away. The
government refused to let him leave the country. Despite threats and
harassment. Tutu continued to speak out. When his passport was
returned in 1981, he immediately embarked on a world tour. He
again called for economic sanctions that would prohibit foreign
countries from selling products to or buying products from South
Africa. He also called tor divestment. That is, he wanted
corporations to pull out of the country and banks to stop extending
credit to the South African government.
As a result of Tutu's and others' campaign, a number oi
multinational corporations withdrew from South Africa. Canada
banned the import of some South African products, including wine
and grapes. Some critics said that economic sanctions and
divestment hurt the blacks of South Africa more than the
government. Tutu argued that this criticism was based on the racist
assumption that blacks do not really understand what is best toi
them and need to be taken care of. Furthermore, he said, the
strategy of economic sanctions and divestment is designed to enc
apartheid. Once a new, multiracial system is in place, other
problems could be addressed.
In 1984, Tutu was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. While he wa
accepting his award, new riots broke out in South Africa, agai
begun by the students. Two hundred thousand students boycotte
classes. Over 1500 elementary school children were imprisonec Tutu returned quickly and tried to keep the protests non-violer
Nevertheless the government declared a state of emergency. Ne
laws strictly controlled the media and allowed the outside world
see only what the government wanted it to see. Because of 1:
international reputation. Tutu was not arrested or detained. I
remained one of the strongest opposition voices within the couni and throughout the world.
Late in 1984, Tutu left the SACC to become the Anglic
Archbishop of Johannesburg. The war against the governrm continues and Tutu remains actively involved in the anti-aparthi movement. He believes in a South Africa where all races can w
and live together. He criticizes those who want to replace rac
against blacks with racism against whites. He believes
multiracial society is the best and only hope tor South Atri
"... because blacks and whites together are of infinite worth si
we are made in the image of God."
Recall
Define apartheid.
A number of events and situations prepared
Tutu for his work as an anti-apartheid activist.
What were they?
Summarize Tutu's main actions against apartheid.

Design a pro/con chart to evaluate Tutu's
ideas about economic sanctions and divestment.

Summarize Tutu's views on the best way to
govern South Africa.
Consider
1. Do you consider the South African government
to be democratic or authoritarian?
Explain your answer.
2. Do you think governments should try to exert
influence over how foreign governments
organize their societies? Explain your
answer.
3. Do you think it is proper for a member of the
clergy to be actively involved in politics?
Explain your answer.

CHAPTER 2: Government 23
Political Philosophies

The planners of the first student council at your
school probably asked a number of questions.
What are the students like and what do they need?
What is the purpose of a student council? What
should its goals be? What relationship should it
have to the students, the staff, and the community?
How should student council members be chosen?
The answers to these questions form the basis of a
political philosophy.
A political philosophy describes a set of
beliefs about the nature of people and society.
Philosophers or political scientists or interested
persons can then consider what system of government
is best suited to organize that society to meet
both its needs and the needs of individuals within
it. All governments, from your student council to a
national government, are based on political philosophies.
Consequently, political philosophies are at
the heart of political science.
Political philosophers have lived throughout
history. Some, of course, have had more influence
than others. Five political philosophers who have
had a tremendous effect on past and present
political systems are Plato, Thomas Hobbes, Jean
Jacques Rousseau, John Locke, and Karl Marx. You
will recognize many of their thoughts reflected in
the governments of your student council, community,
and a number of nations.

Plato (428 BC-348 BE)
Plato was a gifted athlete, a decorated soldier, a
poet, a philosopher, and a teacher who lived in
Athens over 2000 years ago. He loved few things
more than loud, unruly parties. In fact, he died of a
heart attack at the age of eighty-one while dancing
at a wedding reception.
During this period, Greece was divided into
city-states, cities that were independent political

Plato speaking with one of his students in Athens.
UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
units. The two most important were Athens and
Sparta, but there were many others. Alliances
between city-states were often formed and dissolved.
Wars were common. The type of governments
that ruled the different city-states varied but
generally only wealthy men could be citizens.
The Republic
Inspired by the injustices he saw around him, and
by another political philosopher named Socrates,
lato wrote a book called The Republic. He wrote tat people are basically good and rational. Rather \\an being controlled by animalistic instincts,
lumans are influenced by their reason and ntellect. At the same time, they are also rather veak-willed. They need to be led. He wrote that >roper government would lead to a peaceful, rdered society in which all human needs are met. 'eople would then be free. He defined freedom as
he ability to do the work that a person did best and
o pursue intellectual goals. In such a society,
'veryone would be better off.
Plato believed that an authoritarian govemnent
was best able to create a society in which
reedom could flourish. He believed that a small youp of citizens should hold all political power. Plato called them the guardians. The government, tie wrote, would chose the guardians based on their
physical and intellectual abilities. They would be specially trained in science, geometry, and philosophy
to sharpen their minds. Rigorous physical
exercises would keep their bodies fit.
The guardians' power would be hereditary.
Children would be trained from birth to take their
parents' place. However, if it were discovered that a
child did not have the proper ability, he or she
would not become a guardian and a child from
another family would take his or her place.
The guardians would control the arts, religion,
and education. They could ban any artistic work
that suggested violence or questioned authority.
Plato believed that owning property and luxury
goods leads to laziness and greed. Therefore,
guardians would not be allowed to own such things
and members of other classes would be discouraged
from owning too much.
The relationship between the people and the
guardians would be similar to that between parents
and children. The guardians would have the power
to deal harshly with rebellions because they would
be the only ones who would clearly understand the
needs of all members of society. There would be
very few individual rights because individual rights
are less important than the needs of society.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
Thomas Hobbes was a powerfully built, athletic
man with a novel sense of humour. He loved
practical jokes. Although he was born in England,
he made his living in France as a tutor for wealthy
families.
Hobbes developed his ideas during a time of
political revolution in England. He saw a civil war
begin between those who believed the Crown had
absolute authority and those who believed the
Crown had to obey the wishes of Parliament.
Hobbes sided with the Royalists. When the
Parliamentarians won, he went into exile in France
in 1640 and did not return to England for eleven
years.
The Leviathan
Hobbes published The Leviathan in 1651. He argued
that people were originally in a state of nature and
were controlled by the laws, drives, and impulses
of nature. The state of nature was cruel and hard.
People lived lives that were "solitary, poor, nasty,
brutish, and short". Hobbes believed that people
remain tied to nature and are still cruel and
self-interested.
Hobbes believed that all people want and
deserve freedom. He defined freedom as a
CHAPTER 3: Political Philosophies 25
The beheading of King Charies I in 1649. The events surroi
influenced the political philosophies of Thomas Hobbes a
condition in which want is absent and all basic
human needs are met. He believed that freedom
can only be enjoyed if society is ordered and
peaceful. To create such a society, it is necessary
that people form a covenant, or unwritten contract,
with each other. He called this covenant a social
contract. People would voluntarily give up their
rights to a sovereign who would control the
selfishness of human nature to end the turmoil of
the natural state.
The sovereign would have absolute power.
The sovereign would fulfill people's basic needs
and the people would abide by his or her decisions.
Through total obedience, the freedom of all society
is protected. No one would be allowed to question
the leader because his or her actions could never be
considered unjust. He or she is responsible only to
Jnding the English Civil War
nd John Locke.
God. The leader must continue to rule even if al
people oppose him or her because otherwise th< contract would be broken.
John Locke (16321704)
John Locke was an English doctor who also trainee in theology. In his youth, he seemed a seriou;
person who was more interested in his countan
than his patients. Like Hobbes, he did most of hi;
writing while in exile.
Unlike Hobbes, Locke supported the Parlia
mentarians during the English civil wars. He saw
the restoration of the English monarchy unde
Charles II. He mistrusted James II, Charles'
John Locke's political philosophy helped to shape the
governments of Canada, the United States, and many
other Western nations.
successor, who Locke believed was not acting in the
best interests of the people. Locke fled to Holland
in 1683 when he was suspected of plotting against
James. He returned to England in 1688 after
William of Orange invaded England and defeated
James's supporters. Much of Locke's writing after
1688 was an attempt to justify William's actions.
Two Treatises of Government
Locke published Two Treatises of Government in
1690. He agreed with Hobbes that people were
subject to natural law. Unlike Hobbes, however, he
argued that people are basically good. He believed
that people can use their intellect to control their
natural instincts. If they sometimes act badly, it is
because bad institutions have forced them to revert
to their instincts to survive.
Locke argued that people want and deserve a
peaceful and ordered society and that such a
society was necessary to be free. He defined
freedom as the ability to enjoy health, liberty, possessions, and happiness. Locke believed that a
democratic government could best protect people's
freedom. By democracy, however, he meant that
wealthy men should elect the government. He
did not believe that women and the poor should
have a vote.
Locke believed that an unwritten social
contract should exist between the people and the
government. The government should agree to
protect people's freedom while the people agree to
obey the government's rules. People's freedoms
and rights should include the right to own
property, to speak freely, to worship freely, and to
think freely. They should expect that the government
will work to protect these rights. The people
should give the right to judge and punish others to
the state or government.
Locke argued that the contract must be
conditional. If the government acts in ways that do
not serve the interests of the people, then the
contract is broken and the people have a duty and a
right to overthrow the government. They can then
establish a government that better protects their
freedoms.
Jean Jacques Rousseau
(1712-1778)
Jean Jacques Rousseau was bomin Switzerland but
lived and worked for many years in France. He ran
away from home in his early teens and often found
himself with beggars, prostitutes, and thieves. He
eventually became accepted by Paris intellectuals
when he wrote a number of successful plays,
operas, books, and ballets. He considered himself a
writer rather than a political philosopher.
CHAPTER 3: Political Philosophies 27
French citizens rioting for
food during the French
Revolution in what became
known as the Bread
Riot. Much of Rousseau's
political philosophy was
based on his observations
of the violent, chaotic
French Revolution.
Rousseau lived at a time when French citizens
were becoming dissatisfied with the French monarchy.
A number of political groups had formed, critical of the government. They proposed drastic
changes to the monarchy and the entire French
political system. Although Rousseau wrote mostly
from his personal experiences, his work was
affected by the volatile political climate.
The Social Contract
Rousseau wrote The Social Contract in 1762. He
agreed with Locke that people are basically good.
Although subject to emotions and nature, humans
can reason and intellectualize. Bad governments
and bad institutions, however, can lead to evil in
people.
UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
Rousseau argued that the actions of b
government and the people must agree with
general will. He defined the general will as
common good of society, that is, the laws, attitu
and actions that best serve the interests of ei
member of society. The general will may
established by a majority of the people, a s
group or, at times, even by one person if
person understands what will make life bette
all society. He believed that only an authorit;
government would have enough strength to pr
the general will.
Rousseau believed that people should su
der all rights to the legitimate government. 0
government that represents the general v\
legitimate. People would then be concerned
FR1;making life pleasant for one another which would
lead to equality for all. Rousseau argued that this
equality was freedom. Someone who acts against
the general will to try to improve his or her position
jeopardizes both his or her freedom and the
freedom of all people. The government is consequently
justified in forcing that person to adhere to
the general will. In effect, the government can force
someone to be free.
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
Karl Marx was born and attended university in
Germany. After graduation, he became the editor
of a radical newspaper. Under his editorship, the
paper advocated sweeping political changes which
the government disliked and feared. The paper was
soon banned and Marx was forced to flee. For the
next six years, he moved from city to city, finally
settling in London where he did his most important
work.
Like much of Europe, England was changing
in reaction to the Industrial Revolution. The
national economy, which had been based on
farming, was increasingly based on industry and
factories. Millions of people moved from farms to
quickly growing cities. People worked in factories
under deplorable conditions. People lived in
poverty in growing slums around the thriving
factories. Much of what Marx wrote was based on
his observations of the changes caused by the
Industrial Revolution.
The Communist Manifesto
Marx wrote The Communist Manifesto in 1847 with
the economist Friedrich Engels. The book was split
into three parts. The first part dealt with their
philosophy about the nature of people. Marx wrote
that people are basically good. People are able to
use reason rather than blindly obeying instinct or
Children carrying clay at a
London brick factory in
1871. Child labour was a
reality of the industrial revolution.
Marx's observations
of the horrible social costs
of the industrial revolution
influenced his political philosophy.

CHAPTER 3: Political Philosophies 29
natural law. They work hard not only for their own
good but also for the good of all people. Marx
stated that people deserve to be free. He defined
freedom as the ability to benefit from one's work.
The second part of The Communist Manifesto offered a theory of history. Marx argued that
history is the story of class struggle. The class that
owns factories and all other means of production is
the bourgeoisie. The class that works for the
bourgeoisie is the proletariat. The bourgeoisie
exploits the proletariat. This exploitation robs the
proletariat of the benefits of its labour and,
therefore, its freedom.
The book's third part outlines a political
program. Marx believed that government developed
in response to the relationship between the
classes. However, once in power, the bourgeoisie
controls government and uses it and other social
institutions to resist change in an attempt to
maintain power. True political change, therefore,
cannot be gradual. It must always be violent and
revolutionary.
Marx believed that there would be simultaneous,
international revolution in the industrial
nations of Europe. In each country, the proletariat
would revolt to end their exploitation by the
bourgeoisie. After the revolution, there would be a
temporary dictatorship of the proletariat. The
proletariat would oversee a restructuring of the
political and economic systems. Private property
would be abolished and people would work for the
good of all rather than for the good of the
individual.
In time, the institutions of the state, such as the
police, the armed forces, and the banks, would
disappear as people learned they were no longer
necessary. People would live together in communes
and work collectively. There would be no
economic competition and no wars. All of people's
needs would be met. Only in this pure communist state, Marx said, would people enjoy real freedom.
30	UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
Summary
Plato, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, and Marx all
began their work by analysing people's nature and
people's needs. They used their analyses to decide
on the best way to organize society. All that they
wrote was influenced by their personal experiences
and by the times in which they lived.
A number of similarities and differences can
be found among their political philosophies. They
all believe that people originally existed in a state of
nature, which they defined as using instincts rather
than reason. They disagree on how much people
can control their natural impulses. They agree that
people and society are happiest when people are
free but disagree on how to define freedom. Each
thinker advocated the type of government that he
thought would best serve people's needs and help
them to be free.
It would be hard to underestimate the
influence of these five philosophers. Plato's
political philosophy influenced the governments of
ancient Greece and Rome, as well as scholars
today. Hobbes's ideas were used by the supporters
of absolute monarchies during the seventeenth anc
eighteenth centuries, a significant time of changt
throughout Europe. Locke's ideas formed the basi'
of the American Constitution and Bill of Rights
Rousseau's thoughts shaped the ideas behind th
French Revolution. Marx's ideas were adapted b
the leaders of the Russian, Chinese, and Cuba
revolutions. The ideas of these five politic;
philosophers can still be found in the constitutior
of nearly all nations.
Looking Closer
Summarize
1. Why is the study of political philosophies an
important part of the study of political
science?
2. Which side did Thomas Hobbes support
during the English civil wars?
3. What was the purpose of much of John
Locke's writing?
4. What was happening in France during the
time that Jean Jacques Rousseau formulated
his political philosophy?
5. Describe some of the social changes caused by
the Industrial Revolution.
Organize
1. Copy the following comparison analysis chart
into your notebook and complete it.
Plato Hobbes Locke Rousseau Marx
Nature of
people
Definition
of freedom
Style of
government
advocated
Nature of
social
contract
Rebellion in
.society sswwaw. .
As you drive away from a gas station, you
realize that the attendant has given you twenty
dollars extra change by mistake. Would you
return it or keep it, knowing you could never
be caught? What do you think the majority of
people in your community would do? Use
your answers to these questions to write a
paragraph explaining your view of the nature
of people in your society.
Which of the political philosophies outlined in
this chapter do you think is most valid?
Defend your opinion.
CHAPTER 3: Political Philosophies 31
^i^^^^^n
Spotlight: Charles Darwin (18091882)
By the time Charles Darwin was twenty-one years old, he had briefl studied medicine and theology. He had no experience as either (
biologist or a sailor. Nonetheless, his sense of adventure led him t< volunteer as an unpaid naturalist aboard H.M.S. Beagle.
In 1831, the Beagle set sail from England on a five-yea
geographical mission to explore other continents. Darwin quick! became fascinated with the numbers and varieties of plants an' animals he found. He wondered why certain animals lived in onl
one part of the world and why there were differences betwee
individuals of the same species in different places.
After his return and for the next twenty years, he poured over h
notes and conducted additional research. His conclusions frigh
ened him. He hesitated publishing them until he was absolute
certain of their validity. Finally, friends told him about anoth< biologist who was conducting independent research and he
arrived at similar conclusions. Spurred by the new competitio
Darwin published a book in 1859 that answered the questions 1
had been asking since returning from his voyage. The book w< entitled On the Origin of the Species by Means of Natural Selectit or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle For Life. IF
obvious reasons, it became known as simply Origin of Species.
The book suggested that all living things change over time in < effort to adapt to ever-changing environments. Species that do r
adapt become extinct. Within a species, individuals who posse
characteristics needed to survive breed with others who ha
similar characteristics. For example, if a species's food is found
high places, only those able to reach it will live to reprodu<
Eventually, the species will grow taller. Darwin called this proc< natural selection or survival of the fittest.
Origin of Species was immediately condemned by Christi
churches because it questioned the Christian interpretation
creation. The churches believed that it left no place for God. The
who believed Darwin became known as evolutionists. Those v believed the church were called creationists. The struggle betwe evolutionists and creationists continues today.
Although the book did not directly mention people, it affec
political philosphy because it suggested that human beings are 1
all other animals in nature. The book suggested to some that
UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
primary purpose of life was simply to survive. The political
philosphers who agreed with Thomas Hobbes that people are
controlled by natural laws were quick to embrace Darwin's
ideas.
Darwin had not intended his ideas on biology to have such an
impact. In 1871, he wrote The Descent of Man in which he directly
addressed the question of people's place in nature. He argued that
the human species is still evolving as people continue to adapt to
changes. The book showed that biological change is very slow and
happens only over generations.
Many social scientists adapted Darwin's ideas to their studies of
peoples and societies. Within ten years of the publication of The
Descent of Man, its scientific facts and ideas had led to a new
political philosophy called Social Darwinism. The most important
Social Darwinists were Herbert Spencer and William Graham
Sumner. They worked independently but arrived at similar
conclusions.
Spencer and Sumner argued that, like plants and animals,
societies must adapt to changes in conditions. Those that adapt
become stronger and are more powerful than those that do not
adapt. Similarly, individuals within society who adapt to new
Charles Darwin's radical
ideas affected science, religion,
and politics. Some
political scientists used
them to develop a new
political philosophy called
Social Darwinism.
CHAPTER 3: Political Philosophies 33
conditions become leaders. It is only natural, they argued, that
stronger individuals and societies should conquer weaker individuals
and societies. Uniike biological change, they argued, political
and social change happens very rapidly. This, they said, is social,
political, and economic survival of the fittest.
Social Darwinism was a very influential political philosophy from the late 1800s until the mid-1900s. The leader who united
Germany, Otto von Bismarck, used it to justify many of his domestic
policies. American President Theodore Roosevelt quoted Social
Darwinists to explain American military activities in Central America and to justify the treatment of Native Americans. Later
Adolf Hitler spoke of the survival of the fittest when defending hii
policy to destroy lews, Slavs, and other "inferior peoples". By the
end of the Second World War, Social Darwinism was no longe
popular. People had seen how the Nazis had tried to use it to justif
indefensible and immoral actions.
Darwin was angered by the social scientists who twisted h
ideas to fit their purposes. He also deeply regretted what h
considered unfair criticisms levelled at him by the church. He die
at his home at the age of eighty-two. Charles Darwin is an examp
of how someone far removed from political philosophy cc
significantly affect that discipline. He altered the thinking of
number of political leaders which in turn influenced politics ai
history.

Recall
1. What questions led Darwin to reach his
conclusions about evolution?
2. Why were church leaders upset with Darwin's
conclusions?
3. Why did people who supported the political
philosophy of Thomas Hobbes agree with
Darwin's ideas?
4. What are the main arguments of Social
Darwinism?
5. Why did Social Darwinism fall out of favour
in the mid-twentieth century?
6. Why is Darwin's work in biology important to
politics?
Consider
1. Discuss ways in which Social Darwini;
ideas about survival of the fittest still pi
significant role in our society.
2. Should ideas such as Social Darwinist discounted if someone uses them to ji;
actions with which we do not agree? Ex
your answer.
3. Can you think of examples in history
your life where ideas have seemed go
theory but not in practice? Why i
difference between theory and practice s icant to political philosophy?

UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
FR1;Constitutions
Your student council has one. Every community
service group has one. Every province in Canada
and every nation in the world has one. A
constitution is an essential part of every political
organization. A constitution is the code of rules that
outlines the structures and procedures of a political
organization. A state constitution is the constitution
of a country.
There are two main types of state constitutions.
A formal constitution is a legal document.
Most countries today have formal constitutions.
Over seventy-five per cent of state constitutions
have been written since 1945 by countries that won
their independence after the Second World War.
A second type of constitution is an informal
constitution. It is not a written document. Rather, it
is the body of laws, precedents, and customs that
form a country's political tradition. Because
everyone knows and accepts the way the government
should work, a formal constitution is
considered unnecessary and sometimes undesirable.
Informal constitutions are quite rare today.
They were more common in the past when most
countries were ruled by monarchs.
State constitutions are based on many factors
including a country's history, a perception of
human needs, a belief in a particular form of
government, and a political philosophy. Consequently,
a country's constitution tells us a great
deal about a country. This chapter will explore the
roles and the limitations of constitutions by
looking at examples of state constitutions that are
informal, formal, and a combination of the two.
Functions of a Constitution
No matter what language or format they use, all
state constitutions perform three basic functions.
First, they state the principles and goals of their
society. This part of a constitution is based directly
on the political philosophy of the constitution's
authors, usually the government of the day.
In 1983, leaders from several Native bands protested
outside the Ontario legislature to bring attention to the
importance of protecting aboriginal rights in the constitution.

CHAPTER 4: Constitutions 35
Second, all state constitutions outline the
structure of government. Constitutions define the
main bodies of government, their relationship to
each other, the particular duties of each, and the
process used to make laws. They also outline the
limits to the power of government.
Third, constitutions describe the relationship
of citizens to the state and the government. This
relationship is often described by listing citizens'
rights. The list protects citizens from illegal actions
by the government.
We can easily see these three functions in
formal constitutions. They are less apparent,
however, in informal constitutions. It is necessary
to study a country's laws, government, and history
to see how an informal constitution reflects the
society.
Effectiveness of a
Constitution
A war or revolution may make a constitution
irrelevant. Beyond such drastic events, a constitution's
ability to fulfill its functions can be affected
in many ways.
Most constitutions, for example, allow certain
members or branches of government to take or be
given additional powers to deal with national
emergencies. In Canada, if Parliament perceives a
national emergency, it may invoke the War
Measures Act. This seldom-used act temporarily
suspends all civil rights and gives almost dictatorial
power to the prime minister. It was used in the two
world wars and in response to the FLQ crisis in
1970. In other countries, this power is called martial
law. Some governments exploit emergency powers
and thereby discredit their constitutions. The
government of Taiwan, for example, declared
martial law in 1949 and did not end it until
1987.
36	UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
Many constitutions have contradictions within
them. The contradictions allow the government
--e"--*--^.-.-- --^._ --
to ignore whole sectionsof their constitutions. For
example, in many communist countries, including
Bulgaria and Cuba, citizens' rights are included in
formal constitutions. But other parts of the constitutions
state that citizens' rights must never clash
with the interests of the state or the ruling political party. Consequently, the constitutions protect the
right of people to criticize the government publich but allow the government to arrest people if the^ do.
A constitution, of course, cannot fulfill it
functions if a government ignores or suspends it. I)
Poland, for example, in 1978, workers formed
trade union called Solidarity to fight for better pa} improved work conditions, and more rights. Th
Polish constitution allows for the existence c
independent trade unions. By 1980, Solidarity ha
grown very strong and had begun to speak fc
nearly all Poles. In response, the govemrnei
suspended the constitution and then banne
Solidarity. The constitution was robbed of i
ability to protect the citizens or restrict the actiol
of the government.
Finally, a constitution cannot be effective
people have no faith in its power to protect the
rights or limit government actions. If a constitutk
is often suspended or if emergency powers a
exploited, people will no longer believe it is usefi People will also lose faith if every new govemme
brings in a new constitution. For example, in 19 if the twenty-year dictatorship of Ferdinand Marc
in the Philippines ended. A democratic gover
ment under Corazon Aquino was elected. One
her first acts was to write a new constitutk
Despite their happiness with the change, ma
citizens do not trust a document that they belie may change again. Many people ignore 1 constitution and do not expect it to protect th
rights or restrict government power. Politi
scientists wonder how effective a constitution <
be if the courts, police, armed forces, and
government officials share that scepticism.
Factors that reduce a constitution's power
affect both formal and informal constitutions.
However, since informal constitutions draw their
power from tradition and popular ways of
thinking, they are less vulnerable to these factors
than formal constitutions. Some formal constitutions,
after all, are written with little regard to
tradition or custom. Such constitutions seldom
fulfill the three functions of a constitution.
Examining how constitutions work in practice
Armed forces land In Montreal in October 1970 after t
Measures Act. The act temporarily suspended the ci
citizens.
A
helps us understand how formal and informal
constitutions address the three functions.
The Informal Constitution
of Great Britain
Great Britain's political philosophy and system of
government have evolved slowly over 800 years. Its
political traditions are so widely accepted that the
he declaration of the War
vil rights of all Canadian
CHAPTER 4: Constitutions 37
British have seldom wanted a formal constitution.
Elections, for example, are called every four to five
years despite the fact that voting is not discussed in
any formal constitution. Britain's informal constitution
is the collection of laws, precedents, and
customs that is its political tradition. This political
tradition can be traced to four important events in
British history.
First, the Magna Charta was signed in 1215. It
stated that a system of laws should be established.
It limited the power of the monarchy by demanding
that even the monarch obey these laws. The
rule of law meant that Britons could no longer be
ruled by the whims of an all-powerful monarch.
Fifty years later, in 1256, a Gathering of
Commoners convened in London. The commoners
were a collection of clergy and other well-to-do
men. No peasants, serfs, women, or labourers were
included. The Gathering of Commoners discussed
politics and made suggestions to the king. It
established the idea that people have a role in
government. The House of Commons and its name
came from the Gathering of Commoners.
The third major event, the passage of a Bill of
Rights, took place as a result of the Glorious
Revolution in 1688. James II had fled to France,
leaving no monarch on the throne. The Bill of
Rights re-established the monarchy under William
and Mary but with new restrictions. Although the
monarchs continued to control foreign affairs, they
could not set new taxes. They were completely
dependent on Parliament for revenue. The Bill of
Rights ensured that absolute monarchy had ended
in Great Britain. The country moved away from the
political philosophy of Thomas Hobbes.
The fourth important event that shaped
British political tradition was the passage of
election reform bills. Each bill moved Great Britain
closer to universal suffrage. Universal suffrage
means that all citizens over a certain age can vote.
The Reform Bill of 1832 reduced the amount of
property a person needed to vote. The Reform Bills
38	UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
Suffragette Emmeline Pankhurst is arrested outs
Buckingham Palace while trying to present a petito King George V in May 1914. Universal suffrag
protected in many nations' constitutions as an imporl
civil right.
of 1867 and 1884 further reduced the prop
qualification. The Reform Bill of 1918 j
suffrage to all men over the age of twentymost
women over thirty, and eliminated
property qualification altogether. Finally,
Reform Bill of 1928 gave the right to vote t
women over twenty-one.
The ideas of the Magna Charta and
Gathering of Commoners helped establish
ain's political philosophy. The Bill of Rights
the Reform Bills established the structun
government and the relationship of citizens t
government and the state. The three functic
a constitution were fulfilled without a w
constitution. This is the essence of an infi
constitution.
the smell of nearby stables, the delegates created
the current American constitution.
On the original document, the words "we the
people" are much larger than the other words.
They illustrate that the new political system would
be, as President Abraham Lincoln later said, by the
people, for the people, and of the people. The
authors, however, were products of their times.
Not all people were included. The constitution
allowed slavery to continue and did not allow full
citizenship for women. The vote had a property
qualification. The preamble expresses Locke's
political philosophy on which the constitution is
based.
This famous Junius Brutus Steams painting shows th<
constitutional chairperson George Washington offered
American constitution for delegates' approval in Philadel|
The American constitution contains seven
articles. The first four fulfill the second function of
constitutions by describing the structure and
power of government. Article one states that th< legislative branch of government is the Congress
The Congress is made up of the House o
Representatives and the Senate. This article clearl- outlines the qualifications for prospective Mem hers of Congress and the procedures by which the
are elected. It also describes congressional pow< and responsibilities. Bills, for instance, must b
approved by a majority in both houses to becoir
laws. Its most important power is its exclusive rigl
to tax, and to print, borrow, and spend money.
5 climatic moment when the final draft of the new
phia in 1787.
Article two describes the executive. The
executive is the president. It explains how the
president is elected and defines presidential
powers. The United States is unusual because the
president is both the head of state and the head of
government. Consequently, the office of president
is very powerful.
The third article assigns judicial power to the
Supreme Court. The Supreme Court interprets the
constitution in order to arbitrate disputes between
states or between a state and the federal government.
Article three also describes the different
federal and state courts and outlines their powers.

The authors of the constitution wanted to
ensure that no one could abuse political power.
They created a system of overlapping powers
called checks and balances. Each branch of
government checks the others to ensure that the
letter and spirit of the constitution is obeyed. Each
branch of government also balances the power of
the others. For example, the president is the
commander-in-chief of the armed forces. But only
Congress can declare war or raise money to
support the armed forces. The president can veto a
law passed by Congress. The Supreme Court can
rule that a law passed by Congress and signed by
the president contradicts the constitution and can
disallow it.
Amendments
Article five describes the amending formula. An amending formula is a procedure for changing
existing clauses or for adding new clauses to a
formal constitution. Most writers of constitutions
include an amending formula because they realize
that they cannot anticipate future events or needs.
Amending a constitution is serious because the
changes must reflect the political philosophy of the
constitution. To ensure that amendments are
considered long and seriously, amending formulas
are usually quite complicated. To change the
American constitution, the president, the Congress,
and at least three-quarters of the state
governments must approve the amendment. The
process can take years to complete.
There have been twenty-six amendments to
the constitution. The first ten were ratified or
agreed to in 1791. Together, they form what is
commonly called the American Bill of Rights.
These amendments give American citizens the
rights of free speech, freedom of assembly, and
freedom of the press. Some amendments describe
rights when arrested. For example, the fifth
amendment allows people to refuse to answer
questions in court if they believe their answers may
incriminate them. These ten amendments fulfill
the third function of a constitution.
The twenty-six amendments to the American
constitution show how a formal constitution can
reveal a country's history and progress. The
thirteenth and fifteenth amendments, for example,
end slavery and allow all men to vote, including
former slaves. The sixteenth amendment allows
women to vote.
In 1974, an amendment to end sex discrimination
was proposed. It was called the Equal Rights
Amendment. Despite the efforts of women's
groups, the amendment was not ratified by enough
state governments to become a part of the
constitution. The ERA struggle shows that amendments
to formal constitutions reflect social change.
They can also indicate that the time for such change
has not yet arrived.
The Canadian Constitution
The Canadian constitution has been shaped by
both the British and American examples. It is
similar to the American formal constitution
because it is written. It clearly states the political
philosophy, the structure of government, and the
CHAPTER 4: Constitutions 41
rights of Canadian citizenship. It is similar to the
British informal constitution because much of
Canada's political system is based on tradition and
is not written in the constitution.
The constitution reflects Canada's history and
cultural heritage. Canada's first permanent European
settlers were French with French political
traditions. British colonists in the Maritimes
established British traditions. The United Empire
Loyalists who fled to Canada from the United
States during and after the American Revolution
reinforced the British traditions.
In 1864, representatives from Britain's North
American colonies met first in Charlottetown and
then in Quebec City. Under the leadership of John
A. Macdonald, the representatives from East and
West Canada (Quebec and Ontario), Nova Scotia,
and New Brunswick arrived at a deal for union.
The deal became known as the British North
America Act. It incorporated some aspects of
American democracy while remaining loyal to
British and French political traditions. The BNA
Act came into effect on 1 July 1867. It was Canada's
first constitution.
The BNA Act declared the existence of a new
country. It stated that the structure and philosophy
of the new government would be similar to that of
Great Britain while maintaining French political
traditions in Quebec. The structure of the government
would be like Britain's parliamentary democracy.
It would be a federal state like the United
States.
The BNA Act stated that the executive would
be composed of the monarch or the monarch's
representative, the Governor General, and the
Privy Council, which became known as the
Cabinet. The BNA Act does not precisely define
the powers of the Canadian executive. Although
everyone knew that a prime minister would lead
the government, the Act does not mention the
prime minister directly.
Parliament was granted legislative power. It
42	UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
was bicameral, meaning that it had two part' would have to be passed by both the elected
of Commons and the appointed Senate to b
laws. Like the British House of Lords, the
was meant to be above electoral politics anc
up of people from Canada's upper clas'
purpose was to provide 'sober second thoi
bills passed by the politically motivate emotional House of Commons.
The longest and most complex section
BNA Ad deal with the separation of
between the provincial and the federal
ments. The Fathers of Confederation belie'
the strength of American state governme
led to the American civil war. They de< create a country with a strong central gove
The constitution gave provincial govern
great deal of power but it also restrict
power in three important ways. Residua jurisdiction over any matters not
addressed in the constitution, was give
federal government. A representative
Queen, the lieutenant-governor, would o
provincial government activities. The
government would appoint and pay the
ant-governors. The constitution also all
federal government to disallow any prov
that it decided was not in the national i
Sections 91,92, and 93 outline speci
and provincial powers. Section 91 lists tl
assigned to the federal government, inc
maintenance of peace, order, and goo
ment. The statement is vague, but it
interpreted to allow wide-ranging pc
phrase, for example, makes the War Me
constitutional.
Sections 92 and 93 list provinci
including control of education. As a r
provincial government designed the coi
taking and approved this book. In many
as trade and taxation, provincial a
powers overlap. This overlap was inte
Rg. 4.2 Some Responsibilities of the Federal and
Provincial Governments in Canada

Federal Powers
National defence
Monetary system
Citizenship
Criminal law
Postal service
Trade and commerce
Navigation
Aboriginal affairs
Provincial Powers
Natural resources
Education
Prisons
Hospitals
Property
Civil rights
Municipal governments

Shared Powers

Public health
Labour
Welfare
Agriculture
Justice
Taxation


was meant to provide a check and balance in these
areas. It has been the source of a great deal of
conflict and tension between the federal and
provincial governments.
The Canada Act
The Fathers of Confederation believed that Canada
would always remain a semi-independent colonial
state under the control and protection of Great
Britain. Consequently, the BNA Act was an incomplete
constitution. It contained no provisions
for a Canadian judiciary. Until 1949, Canada relied
on the British Judicial Committee of the Privy
Council to serve that function. As well, the rights of
citizenship were not defined. Because the BNA Act
\ was an act of theJhitishjariiament, only that body
could change it. It could not be amended in Canada.
The BNA Act remained filed in London with all
other British laws.
Many attempts were made to patriate the
constitution, or to bring the constitution home and
place it under Canadian control. The provincial
and federal governments could never agree on an
amending formula or a bill of rights.
In 1980, Quebec^ Premier. JRene Levesgue \
organized a province-wide referendum. The referendum
asked the people of Quebec to decide
if the Quebec^ government should negotiate
sovereignty-association with the federal government.
Sovereignty-association is a form of separation.
Quebec would be politically separate but
economically tied to Canada. Prime^4m^terPierre ^ Trudeau promised Quebecers that if they refused
sovereignty-association, he would patriate the
constitution and protect Quebec's rights under a
new constitution. Trudeau's promise was an
important factor in the referendum. Sixty per cent
of Quebecers voted no to sovereignty-association.
It was then up to Trudeau to keep his promise.
A final agreement was reached after a
federal-provincial conference in 1981. Levesque
believed that the new constitution did not adequately
protect Quebec's historical rights and
refused to sign it. Nonetheless, in 1982, in a
rain-drenched outdoor ceremony. Queen Elizabeth
signed the document and made patriation
official.
The patriated constitution is called the Canada
Act. Although much of it is the same as the BNA
Act, there are important additions. The first is the
Charter of Rights and Freedoms. It explicitly states
all the rights that tradition has taught Canadians to
expect. An important part of the Charter is the
notwithstanding clause. This clause allows provincial
governments to pass legislation that conflicts
with the Charter. A provincial law needs only state
that the law is being passed notwithstanding the
CHAPTER 4: Constitutions 43
provisions of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
Chapter five discusses the Charter in more
depth.
The constitution states that all treaties made
with Canada's Aboriginal peoples will be
respected. Native groups are not satisfied with this
provision. They had expected historical and
current injustices to be corrected. They wanted
constitutional recognition as self-governing
nations. Aboriginal rights will continue to be a
controversial constitutional issue in the future.
The Canada Act contains an amending
formula. The federal government and seven
provinces representing at least 50 per cent of the
population must agree to any amendment.
At an outdoor ceremony in
Ottawa in April 1982, Prime
Minister Pierre Trudeau
watches Queen Elizabeth II
sign the patriated Canadian
constitution. Ironically,
the ceremony was
drenched shortly atterward
by a storm that blew in from
Quebec.
44	UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
Amendments cannot be made to any section of
constitution that deals solely with areas
provincial concern. For example, the fed(
government cannot propose an amendment t
deals with hospitals because the provinces coni healthcare. Furthermore, amendments that all
the monarchy, some language rights, and
Supreme Court require unanimous consent of
the provinces.
The Canada Act is a complete constituttoi
fulfills all three functions of a constitution. Beca
much of it is written, it is formal. Because
government structure remains partially undefir
it is informal. For example, the prime ministe
still not mentioned in the Canadian constitutii
rhe Meech Lake Accord
The most important amendments to the constitution
were agreed to by Prime Minister Brian
Mulroney and the provincial premiers in 1987.
Because the agreement was reached at a resort
called Meech Lake, it is known as the Meech Lake
Accord.
In the Accord, Quebec is recognized as a
distinct society. The Quebec government is
allowed to pass laws to preserve and promote its
French nature. Traditionally, the prime minister
has appointed people to be Supreme Court Justices
and Senators. The Accord states that the prime
minister must choose appointees from lists provided
by the provinces. The Accord contains an
opting-out clause. It allows provincial governments
to refuse to participate in national programs.
However, they will still receive federal funding if
they implement similar programs that maintain
national standards.
Quebec signed the Accord and again joined
the Canadian constitutional process. Those who
support Meech Lake argue that it strengthens
Confederation by recognizing regional differences.
Opponents claim that it dangerously weakens the
strength of the federal government. By 1989, some
provinces that had supported the Accord began
reconsidering their stand. The spirited debate
illustrates the intensity of Canadians' respect for
the constitution.
Looking Closer
Summarize
1. Explain the difference between a formal and
an informal constitution.
2. State three functions of a constitution. What
are four factors that can keep a constitution
from fulfilling these functions?
Summary
In January 1989, arsonists burned a building in
Montreal that housed the offices of Alliance
Quebec. It is a group dedicated to protecting the
rights of English-speaking Quebecers. Earlier that
month, the Canadian Supreme Court had struck
down Bill 101 as unconstitutional. Bill 101 was a
Quebec law that stated that only French signs were
legal in Quebec. Quebec Premier Robert Bourassa
invoked the notwithstanding clause and brought in
Bill 69. It stated that only French signs could appear
outside stores while other languages could be used
on signs inside. The fire, public meetings, and
threats of violence followed the bill's passage.
These events show the degree to which constitutional
matters directly affect people's lives. Constitutions
are not dusty old documents to be filed in
archives and forgotten.
Both formal and informal constitutions fulfill
three basic functions. More than simply fulfilling
functions, however, constitutions show how societies
are organized. Constitutions are the clearest
expression of what a country is, what it has been,
and what it would most like to be.
3. Explain the four events that form the basis of
Britain's political tradition.
4. Describe the purpose of the American system
of checks and balances.
5. What is the purpose of a constitutional
amending formula?
CHAPTER 4: Constitutions 45
6. In what ways is Canada's constitution both
formal and informal?
7. Summarize the constitutional changes contained
in the Meech Lake Accord.
2. Create a comparison-analysis organizer to
show how the constitutions of Great Britain,
the United States, and Canada fulfill the three
functions of a constitution.
Analyse
1. Examine the constitution of your student
council. Does it fulfill the three functions of a
constitution? Suggest ways that it can b(
improved.
2. Discuss ways in which a country's history an
how that country achieved independenc
affects its constitution. Cite specific exampli
from the chapter.
3. The summary states that a constitution is ;
expression of what a country is, what it h
been, and what it would like to be. Do y
agree? Discuss your answer.
»»
Spotlight: Sir John A. Macdonald (18151891)
On a bright September day in 1864, a luxurious steamship called the Queen Victoria glided into the Charlottetown harbour. Its arrival
added to the festive spirit of the small city, which was already awash
with the excitement of a visiting circus group. The ship brought
representatives from the colony of Canada (Quebec and Ontario).
They wanted to discuss the possibility of union with representatives
from the colonies of Nova Scotia. New Brunswick. Prince Edward
Island, and Newfoundland. They wanted to make a new nation.
The leader of the Canadians was a tall, thin man with a mass of
curly black hair and an unusually large nose. His name was John
Alexander Macdonald. He was born in Glasgow, Scotland, and
moved to Kingston, Ontario, as a child. By the age of twenty-one, he
was a lawyer and an active member of the Tory party. Macdonald
entered politics and quickly made a name for himself as a witty,
intelligent debater and a careful administrator. He became popular
with many people as a storyteller and practical joker.
After serving as Attorney General for Canada West (Ontario),
Macdonald became leader of the Tory party. Later, he led the
government of the colony of Canada. Canada was in terrible
economic shape and had an unworkable political system. There
were numerous political stalemates and frequent, inconclusive
elections. In 1861, civil war had broken out in the United States.
Macdonald feared that when the war ended the Americans might
simply turn the armies north and conquer the small British colonies
one at a time.
The Maritime colonies were having similar political and
economic difficulties. Their problems were made worse by crippling
debt. They planned to meet in Charlottetown to discuss a union of the
Maritime colonies. When Macdonald heard of the meeting, he
asked to be invited to propose a larger union.
Everyone was impressed with Macdonald's wit, charm,
intelligence, and ability to negotiate compromises. He chaired the
Charlottetown conference as well as the Quebec conference that
followed later. He played a major role in writing the British North
America Act that joined Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick
and became the new country's constitution. His convincing
arguments led to the establishment of a federal political system led
by a strong federal government. He led the delegation to London for
CHAPTER 4: Constitutions	47
ritish approval of the BNA Act. On the day of Confederation, 1 July 867, Queen Victoria knighted him and he became Sir John A.
lacdonald. Few people were surprised when he led the Tories to
ecome Canada's first prime minister.
Some of Macdonald's bad habits infuriated those around him.
[is penchant for delaying decisions led to the nickname 'Old
omorrow'. There were times when he drank too much. Many
elieved that his drinking resulted from a tragic personal life. His
rst wife died slowly of a long illness. His son died in infancy. His
aughter was born mentally handicapped. Whatever the reasons ?r his drinking, everyone in Ottawa knew what was meant by the
rhispered suggestion, "Sir John's off again."
As prime minister, it was Macdonald's job to make the new
onstitution work. He was aware that his government was settinc
recedents and helping to establish a new Canadian politicd
adition. His primary goal was to expand and strengthen the new
ation. Shortly after Confederation, Nova Scotia Premier Josepi
[owe threatened to pull his province out of Canada. Macdonah
ompromised with Howe and Nova Scotia to keep the province i confederation. Macdonald also led the negotiations that mad
rince Edward Island another member of Confederation.
Macdonald's greatest achievement was the building of th Canadian Pacific Railway. Macdonald dreamed of a country fro
ie Atlantic to the Pacific. He knew that a railway was the only way
e Canada's ends together physically and psychologically. He aL
new that if Canada did not establish itself in the prairies, th sgion would be swallowed by the United States. He promts' ritish Columbians that if they joined Canada instead of the Unit fates he would build a railway from east to west within 1 ears.
The job was long and expensive. At one point, Macdonald v
ccused of taking bribes from railway executives. The scandal c
is government an election. As opposition leader, he watcl:
3ilway construction slow to a maddening pace. His govemm
ras re-elected and the pace again quickened. Finally, in June K
ie last spike was driven in Craigellachie, British Columbia. '
3ilway was completed and Canada was joined from sea to s
Possibly the most controversial decision that Macdonald m
ivolved Louis Riel. In 1869, Riel was the leader of the Metis in a if southern Manitoba called the Red River colony. Riel and the t<
)rmed a provisional government that insisted that the Cana< overnment recognize Metis land rights. The provisional go\
THE old leader.
- ..... .. ... ,..„„„„ ...... „.,,„ „„,.,,.. „.„,„ q,ltSl!lft'
A Conservative party election
poster from Sir John A.
,^(« Macdonald's last cam'-'
palgn.


CHAPTER 4: Constitutions 49
50	UNIT 1: The Nature of Politic
lent executed a Canadian named Thomas Scott for refusing to scognize the legality of Riel's leadership and for threatening to kil!
im. Macdonald sent troops to the colony and Riel fled to the Unitec
tates. Fifteen years later, Riel was asked to return by Metis living ii
askatchewan who again had land claims against the Canadtai
overnment. He set up another government and made new
emands. This time, the railway allowed Macdonald to rush troop
uickly to the scene. The Metis were defeated and Riel wa
aptured.
Riel was found guilty of treason and sentenced to be hangec Lnglophones from Ontario and the Maritimes wanted Riel hanged :s a traitor and for the murder of Thomas Scott. Francophones froi
Quebec and Manitoba wanted Macdonald to pardon him as
[efender of oppressed French Catholic minorities. Macdona] decided to allow Riel to hang. Macdonald was hailed as a hero
ome parts of the country and burned in effigy in others.
Macdonald called his economic program the National Polic
'he goal of the National Policy was to turn Canada into a nation th
aded east-west rather than north-south. Building the railway w' iart of the National Policy, as was the creation of high tariffs. Tari:
:re taxes on imports that are meant to help domestic businesses. TI fational Policy helped many Canadian businesses to grow ai
stablished an economy that was independent of the Uniti States.
In the election of 1891, Macdonald accused the Liberals
-eason because they favoured free trade with the United States. ]
laimed Liberal leader Wilfrid Laurier was willing to sell Cana' 3r economic advantage. Macdonald gave rousing, nationalis
peeches that always ended with the slogan, "A British subject I -w
iorn and a British subject I will die!" Macdonald's Conservatu
/ere returned to office.
Only two months after the election, at the age of seventy-E Macdonald was dead. Most Canadians believe that he v
Canada's most important prime minister. He helped write
onstitution and shape the political traditions that gave the coun
ie.
Case Study # 1 --Sweden
The streets of Stockholm were busy on a cold
February evening in 1986. Olof Palrne, the Swedish
prime minister, was quietly walking home from
the theatre with his wife. Suddenly, shots rang out,
Paime was dead. Swedes and the world were
shocked that such a violent act could happen in a
country known for its nonviolence.
Sweden is unique in many ways. Its political
culture is to the left of Canada's. Its social system
reflects the belief that Swedish citizens have certain
fundamental rights. Citizens expect government to
provide social programs that protect those rights.
In return, they are willing to pay high taxes to
finance the programs. The Swedish government
supplies many services to its citizens that people in
most other countries have to pay for themselves.
For example, the government pays pensions to
everyone over the age of 67, widows and widowers,
and people with disabilities. The government pays
for health care for all citizens. It allows six months
maternity leave which can be shared by the
parents. It supplies free lunches to all elementary
school students. Tuition is free at the six universities
and students are given interest-free loans for
their living expenses. The government even
provides interest-free loans to newly married
couples to help them buy their first furniture.
Government officials credit Sweden's low
rates of suicide, alcoholism, drug abuse, and
divorce to their social policies. Poverty is nearly
unknown in Sweden. There are no homeless
people. The literacy rate is 100 per cent.
Sweden has a democratic government. It has
been a constitutional monarchy since 1720. The
monarch today has little political power. Parliament,
called the Riksdag, holds power. The
Riksdag is unicameral, which means that it has
only one house. It has 349 members. It is the
52	UNIT 1: The Nature of Politics
legislative body of government. The Suprenr Court performs the judicial function. The prin
minister and the cabinet make up the executive
Elections are held every three years on tl
third Sunday in September. Everyone over the a
of eighteen can vote. Swedes believe that th
votes are important and 90 per cent of eligil
voters usually cast ballots.
Unlike Canada, Sweden has a system proportional representation. People do not'v
for a member in their riding. Instead, they vote
a party. Any party that receives over 4 per cen
the popular vote can have members in the Riksc
A party's percentage of the popular vote de
mines how many members it will have. The p;
with the highest percentage of voter support fo
the government and its leader becomes pr
minister.
Sweden, with five major parties, has all
always had minority governments. Except if
period of coalition governments between 19';
1982, the Social Democratic Party has ruled <
1917.
The Swedish government is very recepti
the wishes of the people. Citizens often vo
referenda to decide important issues. In 1981
example, Swedes showed that they were ui
about the safety of nuclear power plants and
to have them removed. Despite the fact that r
Sweden's electricity comes from the plant
government vowed to disassemble them b
year 2010.
The government plays an active role
economy and has controlled its developmen
control has allowed the government to prol expensive social programs.
The Swedish tax system is progressiv
more money people make, the higher perc
of income tax they pay. Swedes pay taxes that are
higher than those paid by most Canadians. And
while many large Canadian corporations pay little
or no tax, all Swedish corporations pay a tax equal
to approximately 52 per cent of their profits.
Fig. 1 Personal Income Tax in Sweden --1988
Gross Income Rate It
-:. :: ..' on Net Income!!;
7 250	1283	35% ||
18750	6663	50% B
31250	13613	64% 1
In 1988, the government announced its
intention to phase in a new tax system. The plan
proposed to reduce the taxes of 90 per cent of all
wage earners, to abolish sales tax for everyone
except the richest 10 per cent of workers, and to
close legal loopholes that allowed corporations to
avoid paying all the taxes they owe.
The government owns most major transportation
and communication companies, mines, hotels,
and 10 per cent of all banks. Twenty per cent of
industries are cooperatives, companies that are
owned by those who work for the company. The
largest cooperative is the Federation of Swedish
Farmers with over one million members. It owns
dairies, meat packing plants, farm implement
factories, and more. Many Swedish companies are
privately owned. The largest is Volvo. saab,
Electrolux, Ericssons, and ikea also provide products,
jobs, and investment to Swedes and other
people around the world.
The strength of Sweden's economy can also be
seen in its low unemployment rate. Throughout the
1980s, it was under 2 per cent. Furthermore, except
for 1987, the Swedish government has maintained
a balanced budget.
Sweden's foreign policy is based on armed
neutrality and non-alignment. Nonalignment
means that it does not regard itself as an ally of
either the Soviet Union or the United States. It
strongly supports the United Nations and has been
involved in UN peacekeeping missions in Africa
and the Middle East.
Armed neutrality means that Sweden does not
take sides in wars, but still maintains a military that
is sufficiently strong to defend the country against
invasion. All Swedish men enter the armed forces
at the age of eighteen for basic training and three
weeks of active patrol. Every four years, they
return to active service for additional three-week
patrols. At the age of forty-seven, they leave the
armed forces and become part of the large Civil
Defence Force. In the event of an invasion, the
government could mobilize 750 000 fully trained
soldiers and a 100000 member reserve in two
weeks. This ability combined with Sweden's
sophisticated military equipment makes armed
neutrality possible. It allowed Sweden to remain
neutral in both world wars.
Too often, Canadians pay attention to another
country only when something terrible has happened
in that country. Such was the case with the
Paime assassination. As we near the twenty-first
century, many Canadians will be reevaluating »
Canada's defence, economic, political, and social
policies. They will look to other countries for
examples of successful policies. Perhaps in this
way Sweden will affect us all in the future.
CASE STUDY #1 - Sweden 53
1. Construct a chart to illustrate and explain t
similarities and differences between the soc
programs, economies, tax systems, govci
ments, and foreign policies of Canada a
Sweden.
2. Are there aspects of the way Swedes h
organized their society that you think
should bring to Canada? Explain your ans\
What would be some problems and be
fits of trying to adapt Swedish policie'
Canada?
Political
Culture

W,
hat makes Kenyans different from Ethiopians? What makes
Canadians different from Americans? The answer is culture. Culture
refers to the beliefs, habits, music, food, fashions, art, and literature of a
society--everything that makes it unique. People's culture affects what
they do, what they own, and how they think. At this moment, for
instance, you are reading a book and thinking about an abstract
concept--culture. You are probably warm, well-fed, and relatively
well-clothed. In many societies, this activity would be considered
frivolous and your condition impossible to achieve.
An important part of a country's culture is its political system and
political beliefs. Political culture is the values and attitudes that a society
shares about its political system. Because a country's culture is unique,
its political culture is also unique. France's political culture, for instance,
is based on a belief in democracy and the political philosophies of Locke
and Rousseau. The French tend to be politically active. Czechoslovakia's
political culture, on the other hand, was based on a belief in authoritarianism
and the political philosophies of Marx and Lenin until the fall
of 1989. Czechs often deferred to authority in public and were not
politically active.
Canada's political culture has been shaped by five main factors.
Canada's environment and size have led to the development of strong
regions. Canada's multicultural heritage is another important factor.
The government encourages immigrants to keep and celebrate their
native cultures. Canada's history is important. Canada evolved slowly
UNIT 2: Political Culture	55
Citizenship: Rights ai
Responsibilities
Many of your actions each day involve rights and
responsibilities. They are such a natural part of life
that we often take them for granted. Many people,
in fact, notice rights and responsibilities only when
rights are denied or when they must pay the price
for not fulfilling responsibilities.
A right is a moral or legal standard that we can
expect from others. As a Canadian, for instance,
you have the right to be informed of the charge if
you are arrested. A responsibility is a moral or
legal standard that others can expect from you. You
are responsible, for example, for not breaking the
law.
A person has both civil rights and responsibilities
and human rights and responsibilities. Civil
rights are based on citizenship and vary from
country to country. A citizen is entitled to civil
rights decided by the state and is bound by
responsibilities to that state. Human rights do not
vary from country to country. A person is entitled
to human rights as a citizen of the world.
A state's political culture determines civil
rights and responsibilities. As a Canadian, for
example, you have the right to run for public office
and the responsibility to vote in elections once you
reach eighteen.
Ninety-five year-old Chol
Tai Yu Leung is sworn in as
a Canadian citizen along
with other new Canadians
during National Citizenship
Week,
CHAPTER 5: Citizenship: Rights and Responsibilities
World bodies such as the United Nations try
to respect individual states' political cultures while,
at the same time, trying to persuade all states to
respect certain universal human rights. Many
states, however, have political cultures or concerns
that cause them to reject certain rights as universal
human rights. Political cultures, therefore, also
determine human rights and responsibilities.
This chapter will explore the rights and
responsibilities wu have as a citizen of Canada and as a citizen of the world. It will ask you to consider
how your attituces and activities are affected by
these rights andf responsibilities.
Canadian Civil Rights
Every country has a procedure by which people
become citizens. In Canada, a law called the
Citizenship Act states that a person may become a
Canadiaa citizen through birth or naturalization. A
person As a Canadian citizen either if born in
Canada or if one parent is Canadian. Naturalization
is a legal process that grants citizenship to someone
who is not a citizen by birth. To become a
naturalized Canadian citizen, a person must be
eighteen years old or, if younger, living with
parents or guardians who are also becoming
citizens. A person must live in Canada for three of
the four years preceding the citizenship application.
The applicant must know some English or
French, Canadian history, geography, and politics
and must understand the rights and responsibilities
of citizenship. If the applicant meets all conditions,
he or she swears an oath of allegiance to the Queen
and becomes a citizen. According to the Citizenship
Act, a naturalized citizen and a citizen by birth
have equal rights and responsibilities.
Until 1960, no formal document outlined the
civil rights of Canadian citizens. Instead, they were
protected by the British North America Act and by
58	UNIT 2: Political Culture
Fig. 5.1 Canadian Oath of Allegiance
I swear that I will be faithful and bear true
allegiance to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the
Second, Queen of Canada, Her Heirs and Successors,
according to law and that 1 will faithfully
observe the laws of Canada and fulfill my duties as
a Canadian citizen.
French and British political traditions. For examp
the British tradition of parliamentary democr<
and the clause of the BNA Act that stated that
election had to be held every five years toget
protected Canadians' right to vote.
In 1960, Prime Minister John Diefenb<
drafted the Canadian BilLof j^ights. For the
time, the civil rights of Canadian citizens i listed in a formal document. However, the Bi Rights was only an Act of Parliament and coy.'
changed by any future Act of Parliament. De
fHis weaEness, the BilToFRights was an impc
step in defining and protecting the civil rigl
Canadian citizens.
In 1982, the Trudeau government pat
the Canadian constitution. The first part of th constitution is aJCharter^f^ighteandFreedf discusses the many rights that Canadians
and enjoy because of the Bill of Rights and p
tradition. Its purpose is to state the rif citizenship clearly so that they are underst
all and can be protected by the courts. Bees Charter of Rights and Freedoms is a par
constitution, it can only be changed thro
difficult process of constitutional amendr
The Charter of Rights and Freedoms
tees many freedoms for Canadians, i
freedom of religion, thought, express media, and assembly and association. C
may move within Canada and leave Cana
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CHAPTER 5: Citizenship: Rights and Responsibilities
time. Citizens have the right to life, liberty, and
security. They cannot be discriminated against for
reasons of race, national or ethnic origin, religion,
sex, age, or mental or physical disability. The
Charter recognizes French and English as Canada's
official languages. It states that treaties and
agreements with Aboriginal peoples will be
respected.
The negotiations between the federal and
provincial governments that led to the final
wording of the Charter were long and difficult. As
with all compromises, the Charter is not perfect.
Four factors limit its ability to protect the civil
rights of Canadians.
Section one of the Charter states that the
document will protect rights and freedoms only to
limits that are reasonable in a free and democratic
society. This means thai under certain circumstances,
governments may decide that some
people's rights Jire contrary to the, best interests of
society^at^wkole. Their rights, therefore, can_bg^ denied. If the group disagrees strongly with the
government, it can appeal to the courts. The courts
then make the final decision.
In 1984, a number of provincial governments
used this clause. They believed it was unreasonable
to allow Aboriginal peoples to be self-governing.
Representatives of a number of Native groups
claimed that the right to self-government is
guaranteed by the treaties that the charter is sworn
to uphold. The "reasonableness" clause allowed
the provincial premiers to ignore these parts of the
treaties.
The notwithstanding clause is contained in
another section ofthe'Cnarter. It also limits the
effectiveness of the Charter. This clause states that
a provincial government can pass a lawthat
contradictsThe CharfeFslmply^y stating that the
law^s passednotwithstanding, that is, despite the
existence of, the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
Ontario and Quebec have used the notwithstanding
clause to force motorists over seventy-five
FR1;years old to take a driver's test every year.
Although the law discriminates according to age,
the notwithstanding clause makes the law legal.
The Charter protects^£ree_speech and a free
press, but slander and libel laws restrict these
freedoms. SiariderJSJnakirig^hannful^^
untrue statementsabout/a _person_ or group of
people that damages their reputation^ Libel i<
printing such statements. Ernst Zundel, for example,
is a Canadian writer and publisher who wrote;
pamphlet claiming that the Nazis did not kill si:
million Jews in the Second World War and ths Jews and others had conspired to hide the truth. H
argued that the Charter gave him the right t
publish his views. The courts ruled, however, th
he had broken a law forbidding the publication i
material that encourages race hatred. The Chartel
protection of the rights of expression does n
allow Zundel to print libellous points of view.
The War_Measures Act, which gives the prii
minister extraordinary power and suspend&-c gens' rights, also limits the_Charter. The c however, can ohiysuspend rights temporarily z only in the case of a national emergency.
Perhaps the most important limit to the poi
of the Charter is the unwillingness of citizen' speak up if their rights are infringed or den
Neither the Charter nor the courts can prc
someone's rights if he or she does not let the co
know that illegal actions have taken place. The
way to inform the courts is through a lawyer.
many people, however, do not understand
rights, cannot afford a lawyer, or choose n
fight.
Human Rights
Human rights are tied to human needs. Foe
universal human need. Therefore, it can be a
that all people have a human right to food. b(
it is difficult to decide what constitutes universal
human needs, it is also difficult to decide what
constitutes human rights.
In 1947, the United Nations published a
document called the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights that lists thirty human rights. It was
the first attempt to list human rights that should
transcend national borders and apply equally to
everyone. The United Nations wanted the list to
provide an ideal toward which all governments
could strive. The Declaration points out that rights
include both freedom to do certain things and
protection from other things. For instance, a person
has the right to be protected from slavery, torture,
Ernst Zundel, wearing his
trademark construction
helmet, is carried by enthusiastic
supporters. His publications,
which advocate
the absurd idea that the
Holocaust did not exist,
tested the limits of free
speech in Canada.
and unlawful treatment. All people also have the
freedom to be educated and to marry according to
choice. The Universal Declaration of Human
Rights is still recognized by all UN member »
nations.
Despite recognizing the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights, many countries are still guilty of
human rights violations. A British magazine called The Economist has developed a system to measure
each country's abuses of human rights. A perfect
score is one hundred. Points are deducted for every
abuse. In 1988, Canada lost points for the
continued inequality of women, occasional RCMP
wiretapping and mail censorship, the social ine-
CHAPTER 5: Citizenship: Rights and Responsibilities	61
Fig. 5.3 A Summaiv of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights "'' --w—^, ,;
1. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
2. Everyone has these rights regardless of race, colour, sex, language, religion, politics,
nationality, property, social status or anything else.
3. Everyone has the right to live, to be tree and to live in safety.
4. There shall be no slavery.
5. No one shall be subjected to torture or other cruel or inhuman treatment.
6. Everyone shall be recognized as a person before the law.
7. All shall be treated equally before the law.
8. Everyone has the right to help from the law to correct violations of his rights.
9. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention, or exile.
10. Everyone charged with an offence has the right to a fair and public hearing.
11. Everyone charged with an offence shall be presumed innocent until proven guilty.
12. Everyone has the right to protection of the law against interference with or attacks on
his privacy, family, home, mall, and reputation.
13. Everyone has the right to freedom of movement within his country, and to leave any
country, including his own, and to return to his own country.
14. Everyone has the right to seek out and find protection from persecution in another
country, except when fleeing from arrest for a non-political crime.
15. Everyone has the right to be a citizen of some country, and to change that citizenship
if he so desires.
16. Men and women have the right to many. to choose their partner, and to found a
family. They have equal rights in marriage.
17. Everyone has the right to own property and no one can arbitrarily take it from him.
18. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.
19. Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression.
20. Everyone has the right to meet peaceably with anyone. No one shall be forced to
belong to an association or group.
21. Everyone has the right to participate in the government of his country, either directly
or through regular elections in which all citizens have a right to vote.
22. Everyone, as a member of a society, has the right to share in those qualities of his
society which are necessary to his dignity and the free development of his personality.
23. Everyone has the right to work, to decent working conditions, to equal pay for equal
work, and to join a trade union to protect those rights.
24. Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including a limitation on working hours and
periodic holidays with pay.
25. Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being
of himself and his family.
26. Everyone has the right to an education.
27. Everyone has the right to participate in the cultural life of the community.
28. Everyone is entitled to a social order which promotes all these rights.
29. Everyone is responsible for establishing and maintaining a community in which these
rights are preserved, both for himself and all others.
30. No one may interpret any of these rights as giving any State, group or person the rig
to take away some of these rights and freedoms from the individual.
Note: All of these rights apply equally to men and women.
62	UNIT 2: Political Culture
Fig. 5.3 A Summary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1. All human beings are born free and equal In dignity and rights.
2. Everyone has these rights regardless of race, colour, sex, language, religion, politics,
nationality, property, social status or anything else.
3. Everyone has the right to live, to be free and to live in safety.
4. There shall be no slavery.
5. No one shall be subjected to torture or other cruel or inhuman treatment.
6. Everyone shall be recognized as a person before the law.
7. All shall be treated equally before the law.
8. Everyone has the right to help from the law to correct violations of his rights.
9. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention, or exile.
10. Everyone charged with an offence has the right to a fair and public hearing.
11. Everyone charged with an offence shall be presumed innocent until proven guilty.
12. Everyone has the right to protection of the law against interference with or attacks on
his privacy, family, home, mail, and reputation.
13. Everyone has the right to freedom of movement within his country, and to leave any
country, including his own, and to return to his own country.
14. Everyone has the right to seek out and find protection from persecution in another
country, except when fleeing from arrest for a non-political crime.
15. Everyone has the right to be a citizen of some country, ahd to change that citizenship
if he so desires.
16. Men and women have the right to many, to choose their partner, and to found a
family. They have equal rights in marriage.
17. Everyone has the right to own property and no one can arbitrarily take it from him.
18. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.
19. Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression.
20. Everyone has the right to meet peaceably with anyone. No one shall be forced to
belong to an association or group.
21. Everyone has the right to participate In the government of his country, either directly
or through regular elections in which all citizens have a right to vote.
22. Everyone, as a member of a society, has the right to share In those qualities of his
society which are necessary to his dignity and the free development of his personality.
23. Everyone has the right to work, to decent working conditions, to equal pay for equal
work, and to join a trade union to protect those rights.
24. Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including a limitation on working hours and
periodic holidays with pay.
25. Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being
of himself and his family.
26. Everyone has the right to an education.
27. Everyone has the right to participate in the cultural life of the community.
28. Everyone is entitled to a social order which promotes all these rights.
29. Everyone is responsible for establishing and maintaining a community in which these
rights are preserved, both for himself and all others.
30. No one may interpret any of these rights as giving any State, group or person the rigl
to take away some of these rights and freedoms from the individual.
Note: All of these rights apply equally to men and women.
62	UNIT 2: Political Culture
--n--
^1
Responsibilities
In any fruitful relationship, rights are paired with
responsibilities. They go together in relationships
between individuals as well as between citizens
and states. For a society to thrive, citizens and
governments must respect both rights and responsibilities.

Legal responsibilities are those that citizens
must fulfill because of the law. If a citizen does
not fulfill legal responsibilities, he or she can
be charged with breaking the law and can be
punished.
In Canada, many legal responsibilities are tied
to the rights of Canadian citizenship. Every adult
Canadian citizen, for example, has a legal respon-
One of the most important responsibilities of citizens in
a democratic society is to
vote in municipal, provincial,
and federal elections.

64	UNIT 2: Political Culture
^
sibility to obey the laws of the land, to help polio
maintain order, and to serve on juries who
asked.
Military service is a controversial leg;
responsibility. In many countries, such as tli
Soviet Union and Switzerland, all men must sen
in the military once they reach a certain age.'
Israel, both women and men over 18 must serv
Canada has only imposed compulsory milita
service, called conscription, near the ends of t
First and Second World Wars. At all other timi
military service has been voluntary. The govei
ment has the power to invoke conscription ag,
and it would be the legal responsibility of evi
citizen to serve.
Perhaps the most unpleasant and unavoida
legal responsibility of citizenship is the paymen
taxes. Canadians pay property taxes to municipal
governments, sales and income taxes to provincial
governments, and more sales and income taxes to
the federal government. The average Canadian
pays approximately 45 per cent of gross earnings in
taxes.
Unlike legal responsibilities, moral responsibilities are seldom written in formal statements.
If, for example, you found a lost child, you would
be under no legal obligation to help. However,
your values would probably lead you to try to
assist the child. Your action would reflect a moral
responsibility.
Because Canada is a democracy, Canadian
citizens have a moral responsibility to involve
themselves in the political process. This involvement
can take the form of running for public office,
voting in elections, or writing to political representatives.
Some people consider it a moral responsibility
simply to stay informed about the major
political events of the day.
In most countries, religion plays an important
role in determining moral responsibilities. In some
countries, religion determines the legal as well as
the moral responsibilities of citizenship. In Iran, for
example, there is no separation of religion and the
state. Islamic law is also the civil law. Even in
Looking Closer
Summarize
1. Define the following terms:
a. right
b. responsibility
c. citizen
d. civil right
e. human right
if. legal responsibility
g. moral responsibility
countries where religion and state are separate,
religion often sets moral values and standards.
Although the beliefs and ceremonies of religions
differ, they all include a code of beliefs about how
to treat other people. All religions strive to have
followers treat others kindly and with respect.
These are moral responsibilities. With these
responsibilities, politics and religion often meet.
Summary
Some Canadians take their rights for granted. They
forget that many people have fought and died to
secure rights for themselves, their families, and
their people. The fight for rights continues today
among non-white people in South Africa, blacks in
the United States, ethnic minorities in the Soviet
Union, and many groups in Canada.
The struggle to recognize moral and legal
rights includes a determination to alter responsibilities.
For example, if all Canadians are to have
the legal right to adequate housing then all must
share the responsibility to pay the taxes needed to
build it. Some people overlook the connection
between rights and responsibilities.
2. Why is the Charter of Rights and Freedoms a
better safeguard of civil rights than the old Bill
of Rights?
3. Describe four factors that limit_the effectiveriess
of_tlieJC^bartei oi'^Ightg^mdFreedJomsT
4. Why is it difficult to create a list of human
rights?
5. What is the purpose of the United Nations'
Universal Declaration of Human Rights?
CHAPTER 5: Citizenship: Rights and Responsibilities	65
6. Explain some of the responsibilities of Canadian
citizenship.
7. What role does religion play in determining
and promoting moral responsibilities?
Organize
1. a. As a class, brainstorm to create a list of
activities in which an ideal, responsible
Canadian citizen could be involved. Using
this list as a guide, write a survey to
determine how active most people are as
citizens. Try to write the questions so they
can be answered yes or no.
Each member of your class should
survey as many people as possible, including
students, teachers, parents, and other
members of the community. Keep checklists
to record their responses.
b. Organize and analyse the data from the
surveys. What conclusions can you reach
about citizenship in your community?
What could your class do to persuade
people to be more active in fulfilling the
responsibilities of citizenship?
c. Look at your survey again. What could be
done to improve it? How could it be made
more valid?
Analyse
1. What can be done to persuade more countries
to respect the United Nations' Universal
Declaration of Human Rights?
2. Use the Charter of Rights and Freedoms to
complete the following exercises.
66	UNIT 2: Political Culture
a. You are the lawyer for Sandy, a fe
basketball player who wants to play
boys' basketball team. The bask(
association has refused to let her joi:
team. Using sections 1, 15, and 28 c
Charter, explain why Sandy shoul
allowed to play for the team of her ct
You are the lawyer for the bask
association. Using the same sections i
Charter, explain why Sandy should r
•^ allowed to play.
B. You are Gary's lawyer. After leav
party at which he had been drinking,
was stopped by the police as part of
check. The police asked him to t
breath test and he refused. Using se
1, 8, and 10 of the Charter, explaii
Gary does not have to take the breat
You are the crown prosecutor. Usi]
same sections of the Charter, explai
Gary does have to take the breath 1
c. You are the lawyer for a family tih
religious reasons, does not ce]
Christmas. The parents want to foi
public school that their daughter att<
take down its Christmas decorations
believe that the school is forcing nontian students, including their daugl
celebrate Christmas. Using section
and 15 of the Charter, explain w
Christmas decorations should be
down. You are the lawyer for the
Using the same sections of the C
explain why the decorations shoul(
Spotlight: Emily Murphy (18681933)
In 1907, an Alberta woman was shocked when her husband
suddenly announced that he was selling their farm and moving to
the city. Her small poultry yard, garden, and dairy had enabled
them to keep the farm as long as they had. She decided to stay
regardless of her husband's plans. Shock turned to anger when she
realized that, according to Canadian law, she had no say in the
decision. She discovered that a married woman did not have the
right to own property, to keep the money she earned, or to claim her
husband's estate if he died leaving no will. Women did not have the
right to win custody of children in a divorce. The Alberta woman was
legally forced to give up her life's work and move to the city, as her
husband ordered. Emily Murphy dedicated her life to changing
these unjust laws and to promoting the rights of women.
Emily Ferguson was born in Cookstown, Ontario, in 1868. Her
father was a wealthy and influential merchant. Both at home and at
expensive private schools, she learned to behave the way women
were expected to behave in those days--as pretty, quiet, obedient
servants to their fathers and husbands.
When she was nineteen, Emily married an Anglican minister
named Arthur Murphy. As a parson's wife, she organized meetings
and fund-raising events, visited the sick, and taught classes. In 1898,
Arthur accepted a church in London, England. Although Emily did
not want to leave Canada, she went along without question.
Murphy's social conscience was touched in London. She
witnessed poverty, child labour, slums, hunger, and other social
problems. In 1901, she wrote a book to try to draw people's attention
to the problems. She used the name Janey Canuck to avoid
embarrassing her very conservative husband. Impressions of Janey
Can uck Abroad became moderately successful and on her return to
Canada she published a number of magazine articles and books.
Her book entitled The Black Candle, published in 1922, was one of
the first to examine drug addiction. She wanted to make people
aware of the terrible personal and social costs of drug use. Pruning
The Family Tree, a controversial book about the necessity of birth
control, was published during the time when all birth control and
birth control information was illegal.
In 1907, Murphy and her husband moved to Edmonton. She
discovered social problems that rivalled those she had seen in
CHAPTER 5: Citizenship: Rights and Responsibilities
London. She became particularly concerned about the treatment <
women. She organized groups to fight for women's rights. Murphy
realized that many women shared her concerns but were unwillin
to speak out. She became one of their most important leaders.
Murphy's first fight was to amend the laws that restrictd
women's rights to own property, to keep money they earned, and|
inherit. Murphy wrote letters, spoke at government meetings, cc
met with many members of the legislature. In 1911, the Albel
Dower Act was passed. Murphy and her co-workers had won.
In 1913, Murphy joined the Equal Franchise League. The EF1
aim was to pressure the Alberta government into giving women t
right to vote. Alberta Premier A.L. Sifton ignored an EFL petitii
signed by 40 000 women that demanded women's suffrage. Murp
and Nellie McClung, another EFL member, argued that besi^
being morally right, women had earned the right to vote. They b
helped build Alberta through their hard work homesteading an<
factories producing war goods. In 1916, partially to win worn*
votes in the upcoming election, Sifton's government passed a
that gave women the right to vote in all Alberta provincial
municipal elections. Two years later, the Sifton Bill heipe'
persuade the federal government to grant women the right to vc
federal elections. Murphy had another victory.
In 1916, Murphy was appointed a police magistrate for Alfc
She was the first woman magistrate in the British Empire
appointment was met with anger and resentment from many
On her first day as a magistrate, a defence lawyer refused to a
her decision. He stated that Murphy was not qualified to be a
because she was not legally a person. He quoted British Co
Law of 1876 that stated, "Women are persons in matters of pail
penalties, but are not persons in matters of rights and privil
Since being a judge was a right and a privilege, he said. N
could not legally be a judge. Murphy's court decisions were'
by higher courts, but this accusation began the fight of hei
Murphy discovered that the BNA Act used the word "pi
when speaking of more than one person but "he" when spec
only one. She argued that in common English usage, the we
referred to both women and men. Her opponents argued
constitution must be interpreted to mean that wome
constitutionally not persons. Therefore, they could not claii
rights and privileges of Canadian citizenship.
Murphy began her fight to have women recognized as
by trying to have a woman appointed to the Canadiar
Emily Murphy presiding in
an Edmonton court in
1918.
According to the BNA Act, only persons with certain qualifications
could be appointed. Murphy wrote more that seven hundred letters
to influential politicians and members of the press. She presented
the federal government with a petition signed by 100 000 people,
demanding a woman in the Senate. The government was
unmoved.
In 1927, Murphy went to court to demand a ruling on the Persons
Case. She was supported by four other women who collectively
became known as the Famous Five. The others were Nellie
McClung, Henrietta Muir Edwards, Louise McKinney, and Irene
Parlby. In 1928, the Supreme Court of Canada decided that women
were not constitutionally persons.
Murphy and the others appealed to the Judicial Committee of
the Privy Council in Britain. Until the Second World War, it could
overrule the Canadian Supreme Court. After considering the case
for nearly a year, the Privy Council decided that the Canadian
Supreme Court had been wrong. The Lord Chancellor argued that
the word persons refers to both men and women. Therefore, women
must constitutionally enjoy the same rights and privileges of
citizenship as men.
CHAPTER 5: Citizenship: Rights and Responsibilities
The Famous Five pined all Canadian -women in a celebration
their victory. In 1930, Cairine Wilson became the iirst womi
senator. Other women iollowed as senators, fudges, and members
parliament.
On 26 October 1933, Emily Murphy spent a quiet aiternoon in
Edmonton library researching a new series oi articles she ^ writing. Later that night, she died peacefully in her sleep. Her h
work and determination resulted in women winning civil rights
many people today take for granted.

^ca\\ u ^inp and the early
- ^^^^------k
, ^ea^----------hel9nAlberta
Dower Act. ^ Franchise ^ What was the goal° J ^ ^^
League? What fador^d Uw not
5- ^^^ why was thls significant? ^-^ and the Famous
6- p^r^^" --d"
persons.
consider .Case involved a legal ^ 1 The Persons Case my ^
1- tionofconsti^^^^
^gazines. o^^ides about oti resource centre ror a ^ for rights that have ^n ^ interpretations. Discuss y
s- *^^r^
^^%^:- rx"^^done to ad
issues?

FR1;Political Socialization
At birth, a human baby is the most vulnerable,
dependent Newborn in the animal kingdom. Other
infants have instinctual survival skills that are
absent in the human baby. Nevertheless, within a
short period, most human beings learn the skills
necessary to survive and live with others in a
complex environment. People learn to be social
beings through a process called socialization.
Political socialization is an important part of
socialization. It is the process by which people learn about their society's political culture. Political
culture, as you recall, is the shared values and
attitudes of society about its political system.
People are politically socialized through exposure
to a number of different agents of socialization. Agents of socialization are organizations or
institutions. Political socialization takes place
indirectly. For example, the main function of
schools is to educate young people. Students are,
nonetheless, politically socialized during their
school years.
All cultures politically socialize their citizens
although political valuesTattitudes, and behaviours
differ from one Jculture_tp another. For example,
since'the 1979 Iranian Revolution, the connection
between religion and government Tias been an
important part of Iran's political culture. Political
decisions are based on religious laws. Political
socialization leads Iranians to believe that religion
and politics should be linked. In Canada, religion
and government are separate. Consequently, political
socialization teaches Canadians that state laws
Mourners hot at the funeral
of Iranian religious and
political leader Ayatollah
Khomeini. The mourners
wanted to touch the body,
believing that to do so
would bring them closer to
heaven.
CHAPTER 6: Political Socialization 71
should not be based on the laws of one particular
religion.
This chapter will examine six main agents of
political socialization in Canada. You will be able to
see how each one has affected you. You will see
how each has played a part in developing your
understanding of Canada's political culture.
The family is usually the first social unit to which
people belong. The structure of the average
Canadian family has changed a great deal in the
twentieth century. An increase in the number of
divorces has resulted in a dramatic rise in the
number of one-parent families. More women now
work outside the home. Day^care agencies and
babysitters have become more important in raising
children. ScEobls^now teach many things, such as /y/- sex education, that used to be taught at home.
Despite these changes, the function of the
family remains the same. A family provides love,
security, and companionship. It also establishes a
child's social class, religion, and language or
languages. The values and attitudes that a child
learns during his or her first five years usually
remain relatively unchanged throughout the
child's life. For example, if a teenager has grown up
in a family that expresses racial prejudice, he or she
may express racial prejudice without really understanding
why.
Political socialization in the family takes place
indirectly in three main ways. First, families teach
children how to respond to authority. Consider a
family in which children are taught to obey their
parents blindly and are swiftly and painfully
punished for disobedience. These children could
grow up resenting and fearing but still obeying all
authority figures. They might resent but never
question government officials.
72	UNIT 2: Political Culture
Consider another family in which childn
included in decision making. They might hel]
a family holiday. At the same time, they are) to respect their parents because of their if experience. This environment may unconsc teach children to respect authority but to alsi
for themselves. They might expect input v decisions that authority figures make.
Another important part of political so
tion is the attitudes that families instil) government and the law. Some Canadian 1
say that government officials are dishon
that they are interested only in serving tih
interests. Children growing up in these
may develop negative attitudes about the
ment and the law.
Other Canadian families may see tl and government officials as community who serve and protect citizens' rights.
these families teach their children to look
officers if they are lost or in trouble. Chil
grow up in these families may develop .
attitude about government and the law.
Third, families teach children how
information about the world around the
need information to learn about politicia
and issues and much of this informat:
from outside the home. In some famili
magazines, and newspapers are the majc
political information gathering. Family might watch informative television sli dren from these families may learn
in-depth information from a number
They may believe that political events
tant and interesting.
In other families, books, magazin
pers, and news-oriented television sh
read or watched. Children from these if learn that various sources of info]
uninteresting. They may believe tl
affairs are boring and not worthy oj discussion.
School
In Canada, the state controls education. All
provincial governments agree that schools must
teach certain basic skills. They also agree that
schools should prepare students to be responsible,
productive citizens. Schools are agents of political
socialization by teaching the basic values and
attitudes that make up Canada's political culture.
Political socialization takes place in schools in
two main ways. First, schools introduce students to
a structural hierarchy. A structural hierarchy is a
style of organization, based on a chain of
command. For example, in most schools the
principal is the leader. The vice-principal is next in
the chain of command, followed by department
heads, and then teachers. Students have little
power. The Canadian political system is also a
structural hierarchy. The prime minister is the
leader, followed by cabinet ministers, and so on.
However, the bottom of the chain, the voters, have
more power than students in a school because
elected politicians are dependent on their votes. By
exposing young people to a structural hierarchy,
schools indirectly teach them how political power
is organized.
Second, all provincial governments control ^ what courses are taught and the content of those "' courses. You are using this textbooK only because
your provincial government approved it. Because
the state establishes school curricula, they always
reflect political trends. In the late 1980s, for
instance, illegal drug use became a political issue.
As part of overall programs to deal with this social
problem, many provincial governments introduced
drug addiction education programs into
schools. Government-designed programs in government
schools reflected attitudes that were part
of the Canadian political culture.
In May 1989, thousands of
Chinese students occupied
Tiananmen Square in Beijing
to demand political
change. In June, the govemmentviolently
swept the
students from the square.
Chinese school curriculum
was altered to shape opinions
about public protest
and opposition to the government's
authority.
CHAPTER 6: Political Socialization
In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Y
religion played a significant role in political ta
decision making in Canada. In Quebec, Roman g
Catholic religious leaders influenced nearly allC. a
government decisions. Anglican Church leaders 1
were as politically powerful in Ontario. Since then, ^ r \ the number of people who attend services regularly ^i has^dedin.ed. Immigrants have brought new
religions to Canada: These two trends have
affected the power of religion in shaping public
policy.
Still, religion continues to play a significant
role in the political socialization of many Canadians.
All religious denominations in Canada teach
their followers to respect authority and to obey
rules. They also teach their followers to be tolerant
of others, to help others, and to live peaceful,
socially responsible lives. These values are an
important part of Canada's political culture. People
apply these religious values to the rest of their lives,
which strengthens their belief in and support for
Canada's political culture.
Soviet rock group Autograf
at a press conference during
their 1988 American
tour. in the Soviet Union, as
in Canada, music is an
important factor in establishing
adolescent peer
groups.
UNIT 2; Political Culture
peer Groups
,,^ts of your friends, acqi
^^r^^^^r'
.noes, and others^^^^eristics.Vour
ro^^ercst^^cial class, religio;
re often ^M^eenagers become focation
as you. mos ^^^ ^d
^th people who share ^es. A peer groul ^dandhave^^^^^
reinforces and extenu religion.
person sfamily_^^J^attitud
Reinforcing basic ^^ ^
reinforces -con-10^^ whose fan. tudes. For example,teen^ ^ ^
politically ^^^e, Sveir peers r. goodthing.lnad^escen -
Svol^chLTclu^studentcounc. local political camp^. ^ ,
--5^^^^
at work, like peer ^^ an(
e^^^^__
FR1;attitudes, and behaviour. Thus, peer group pressure
plays a role in early political socialization
and continues to have influence throughout a person's
life.
Social Organization
A social organization is any group or club outside
the family to which a person belongs. These
groups--Scouts, Guides, athletic teams and so
on -- play an important role in most people's lives.
Social organizations provide companionship and
leisure activities for their members.
The structure of many social organizations
reflects Canada's political culture. Most social
organizations have leaders and a structural hierarchy.
Members are expected to obey rules and
procedures and are awarded rights and privileges.
All social organizations ask members to fulfill
certain responsibilities.
Organizations that mirror Canada's political
system indirectly politically socialize members by
unconsciously teaching certain values. Members
may then support Canada's political system
because it is based on similar values. For instance,
giving up individual privilege for the good of the
team is an important part of social organizations
and of Canada's political culture.
Social organizations can also politically socialize
their members intentionally. For example, most
service club meetings begin with the singing of the
national anthem and a toast to the Queen. All
sports facilities fly the flag and many games begin
with the singing of the national anthem. Leaders,
team captains, or club presidents are often elected.
Even to become Brownies and Cubs, children must
recite political pledges.
The Brownie Pledge
I promise to do my best, to do my duty to
God, the Queen and my country, and to
help other people every day, especially
those at home.
The Cub Pledge
I promise to do my best, to do my duty to
God, the Queen and my country, to keep
the law of the wolf cub pack and to do a
good turn for somebody every day.
The Media
The media includes all means of communication
that reach the public--newspapers, magazines^-----"7
radio, movies, or television. The power of the /
media to shape public opinion, tastes, and attitudes ' has increased dramatically since the 1940s. New
technologies such as satellites, microcomputers,
and videotapes have created a world of instant,
mass communication. Large numbers of people
can now receive information at the same
moment.
Mass communications have increased the
media's power as an agent of political socialization.
The media's power in Canada can be seen in three
ways. First, they help to promote shared ideas or
unity of thought across Canada. Unity of thought is
an important part of political culture. The Canadian
Broadcasting Corporation was founded in 1932
to promote national unity while acknowledging
Canada's regional differences. It began as a string
of radio stations and later expanded into television.
Its programming unifies Canadians by exposing
people from all parts of the country to the same
information at the same time.
The media also participate in political socialization
through their control of the news. Most
Canadians learn what is happening in other parts of
CHAPTER 6: Political Socialization 75
Canada and around the world through news
reports. Canadian public officials are often asked
to comment on world events. The result is that
most news reflects a Canadian political perspective.
In Canada, even political officials who are
critical of the current government always promote
and defend Canada's political culture. In reporting
and emphasizing political news/ the media act as
transmitters of Canada's political culture.
Third, the media are agents of political
socialization when they reinforce stereotypes. A
stereotype is a belief about a person or group based
on prejudice rather than fact. For many years,
movies and television portrayed Native peoples as
lazy, inarticulate, and childish. In the 1960s, Native
groups in Canada began pressuring the federal
government to recognize their civil rights. Their
struggle was difficult partly because they first had
to fight this stereotype. People who believed the
media stereotype felt that Native Canadians did
not deserve the same human and legal rights as
other Canadians.
Peter Mansbridge on the set of the CBC's news program, The National. The media, and especially television, have
an enormous role in influencing people's thoughts and
opinions.
76	UNIT 2: Political Culture
FR1;The Effects of Political
Socialization
Political socialization is different than
indoctrination. Political socialization me
people are exposed to all political if
systems/and cultures. They are encou
assess different political ideas critically.
ment officials hope that people will cone
their political culture is the best and
supporting. This type of open-minded
socialization is common in most di
countries.
Citizens of democracies tend to asse' ideas in one of three ways. Some people parochial orientation. That is, they do ni
tiRey have any role in politics. They be
cannot affect it and that it does not af
They do not vote or participate in a;
political matters.
Other people develop a subject c
They believe that government Tias~an
them but that they have no influe
Although they may participate in g
programs, they see government as an
People with a subject orientation rr
elections but otherwise do not pa
political affairs.
Finally, people may develop a orientation. They learn how govemi
They know how government influenc
understand how they can affect
policies. They actively participate
matters.
As children are socialized pol
often progress through each stage. c develop a participant orientation. V\ older, they may become frustrated b government action or actions and parochial orientation.
^.w^^y-s^yi^^-^i. i
Political indoctrination is quite different from
political socialization. Its goals are much more
rigid. People are taught that one political system is
best to the exclusion of all others. They are taught
that other systems are misguided and evil.
Indoctrination intends that people will accept what
is taught uncritically. Some people consider
political indoctrination to be a form of brainwashing.
It was used in Stalin's Soviet Union in the
1930s, in Nazi Germany, and in China in the 1970s.
Authoritarian governments continue to employ
political indoctrination to politically socialize their
citizens. Indoctrination teaches people to obey
blindly while political socialization teaches them
to think.
Looking Closer
Summarize
1. Why does political socialization vary from
culture to culture?
2. What traditional functions of the family does
the state increasingly fulfill?
3. How does the state control schools?
4. Why has religion's political power decreased
in Canada in the last fifty years?
5. How does a person choose his or her peer
, group?
6. In what way are the Brownies and Cubs
political?
\7. Define the media. Describe the factors that
\ have led to a growth in the media's power in
" Canada.
8. What is the difference between political
socialization and political indoctrination?
9. Give the three types of political orientation
that people can develop through political
socialization. Explain each.
Summary
We are all socialized. Socialization is how we learn
to be social beings. Political socialization is how we learn about our political culture. Political socialization
takes place indirectly through our exposure to
agents of socialization.
For a democracy such as Canada to thrive and
progress, its population must be politically socialized
so that a majority develop a participant
orientation. They are then likely to understand,
support, and promote Canada's political culture.
The process is circular. A society's political culture
will shape and is then shaped by political
socialization.
Organize
1. Copy and complete the following chart.
Agent of How Political Socialization Occur;
Socialization
Family |
Schools
Peers
Religion
Social
Organizations
Media
2. Rank the agents of socialization according to
their influence in your community, from the
most to the least influential. Explain why you
ranked them as you did.
CHAPTER 6: Political Socialization 77
, in groups, con,ple^^^,n
' a^^"?^^^
^r^ thero as you d^- i for your community is
-l&^^^SS
^t^ ^they a"the
^e^^^1""101'5 ' with other groups.
Analyse -naivsis chart us
. Construd a comparison-analysis 1- ^ fonowingheadmgs^____^
^^^ss - ^^1=^^
3 r;o^-,p^^r^
&°:rf^--thtts
your opinion.
Spotlight: Marshall McLuhan (19111980)
Imagine for a moment your life without television. Think of how
governments and businesses would change. Television plays such a
significant role in society that the changes would be enormous.
Marshall McLuhan worked to understand how television and all
means of mass communication affect individuals and society.
Marshall McLuhan was born in Edmonton. He was an
enthusiastic reader who pored over a great number of books on a
wide variety of subjects. He attended the University of Manitoba and
then received a Ph.D. in English literature from Cambridge in
England. In 1946, he returned to Canada and began teaching at the
University of Toronto. He wrote a number of important books and
articles and edited a magazine.
Shortly after joining the staff of the University of Toronto,
McLuhan became fascinated by the power of the media. He began
to analyse how the various forms of media affect communications.
He looked at how information is transmitted and how people receive
it.
McLuhan concluded that the years from 1700 to the mid-1900s
were the age of print. People shared and acquired information
largely through the printed word. This form of communication
encouraged individual thought and analysis because information
could be given in detail and read at an individual pace.
McLuhan called the mid-1900s to the present the age of
electronics. Technology changed the way people share and
acquire information. Modern communications have become mass
communications. They are no longer geared to individuals but to
great numbers of people. Information is presented so that millions of
people of various levels of interest and intelligence can understand
it.
McLuhan went on to argue that the electronics age has
produced two forms of media. He called print and radio hot media.
They are hot, he said, because they demand that the receiver (the
reader or listener) be totally involved. The receiver of hot media uses
particular senses to analyse details. McLuhan called television a
cool medium. It is cool, he argued, because a viewer receives
information passively. The viewer uses different senses and
different parts of the brain than the reader or listener.
CHAPTER 6: Political Socialization
McLuhan's arguments about hot and cool media led hi
conclude that how information is presented significantly affects
that information is received. As well, different media determine
information can be presented. Therefore, the means of transm
information is as important as the information itself. He summa
his findings in the phrase, "The medium is the message".
phrase became the title of one of his most famous books, publ
in 1967.
In other books, McLuhan argued that all forms of mass i
had become so powerful that they no longer simply reflected
attitudes and values. By the 1960s, he wrote, the media were a<
shaping them.
McLuhan's controversial books became international bi
ers. No one had analysed mass communications in such d(
concluded that the power of the media as an agent of p
socialization was growing. Perhaps somewhat ironically, Mi
appeared on many television and radio talk shows. His boo!
on the reading lists of various courses at universities in Canada, the
United States, and Europe.
In later books and articles. McLuhan argued that the spreading
of non-specialized, mass information had created a generation of
people who could no longer think and analyse as individuals. They
were the world's first television generation. Mass communication
had helped to create a mass or pop culture geared to the short
attention spans of television.
In 1963, McLuhan founded the Centre for Culture and
Technology at the University of Toronto. Its purpose was to study the
power of mass media and mass culture. McLuhan's books continue
to challenge a new generation of students. The new technologies of
satellites and micro-computers have made the questions he raised
even more relevant.
McLuhan was not pessimistic. He believed that society and
educators should help people understand the power of the mass
media. Equipped with media skills, people would be able to
understand the manipulative power of the media and could avoid
being manipulated. Think of Marshall McLuhan the next time you
watch the news on television. Ask yourself whether the medium is
indeed the message.

Recall
1. Describe the important differences between
the age of print and the age of electronics.
2. Define mass communications.
3. Explain the differences between hot and cool
media. What are the demands of each on the
receiver?
4. What did McLuhan mean by the phrase, "The
medium is the message"?
5. What problems does the television generation
have? How did McLuhan believe these
problems could be addressed?
6. Why is McLuhan's work still important?
Consider
1. Divide the class into groups of three. Each
group should study today's news by examining
newspaper, television, and radio reports.
Record the stories covered, the amount of
detailed information and analysis presented,
the order of the stories, and the amount of
time/space given to each. The group should
then write a report about how hot and cool
media present the news.
2. Prepare and conduct a survey to discover how
people in your school and community receive
the news. Analyse the survey results. What
conclusions can you make? Discuss the
significance of the survey results with respect
to the media's role in political socialization.
3. McLuhan argued that the media are the most
important agent of political socialization. Do
you agree or disagree with this opinion?
Explain your answer.

CHAPTER 6: Political Socialization
FR1;As Canadians, we live in a society in which all
people are considered equal. However, our daily
lives show that many inequalities exist. Inequality
exists because some people and groups in society
have more power than others. Power is the ability
to influence the thoughts and actions of others.
You can probably think of people in your
school who are more powerful than others.
Teachers have more power than students. Certain
students are more powerful than others because of
their age, intelligence, appearance, or even because
they own nice cars.
People with power are often leaders. A leader
is someone who can influence others to follow or
accept his or her directions or beliefs. Leaders are
differentiated by the groups they lead, by the
amount of power they have over the groups they
lead, and by the methods they use to get and
maintain power.
A society's leaders and the roles that they play
indicate a great deal about the distribution of
power in that society. Power and leadership reflect
a society's political culture. This chapter will ask
you to consider ways in which power and leadership
are related and how they affect you and your
society.
The Five Main Social
Institutions
In every country, power is held by social institutions,
organizations based on law or custom. Social
\)wer and Leadershi}
institutions found in most countries are govi
ment, business, the military, labour, and the me
The amount of power a social institution
depends on the political culture of the sodel
which it exists. An authoritarian govemmenf example, is the most powerful social instituti
its society. A democratic government, on the
hand, is restricted by laws, a constitution, po
traditions, and the other social institutions.
The relative power that any social insti
possesses changes over time. For example, ii
democratic nations, the power of the rnilil
limited. However, in times of war or n;
emergency, the military quickly becomes )
ful. In every country, the power of soc
stitutions is based on similar factors.
Government
The power of any government is based pi on its ability to make laws. Laws can oftel
ripple effect. That is, a law influences if
social institutions and thus many peopl< Consider, for example, the effect of a
allows businesses to open on Sundays.
profits would increase. Church attendan
decline. Workers would find it difficult
day-care for their children. Even the rv people attending cultural and sports eve
be affected.
The right to tax is a significant
government's law-making power.
influence consumer spending, business
and employment. In other words, t) everyone.
Government also has the power to set the
agenda for a society. For example, in 1933, during
the Depression, American President Franklin
Roosevelt set out an economic plan called the New
Deal that radically altered American society. Then
in 1941, Roosevelt declared that the United States
was at war with Japan. Society shifted its efforts
to provide people and equipment for the war.
The government was able to focus efforts of the
other social institutions on what it considered
important.
A government's power is also based on the
recognition that it is the legitimate leader of a
country. This recognition alone can make a
government the most powerful social institution in
a society.
Hunger marchers from several
southern Ontario cities
walk to Toronto to protest
economic conditions during
the Great Depression.
The Depression demonstrated
the power of government
and business decisions.

Business
The business institution comprises all the companies
and organizations that produce goods and
services in a society. It is not a unified institution. It
is a collection of competing businesses that range
from multinational corporations to local corner
stores.
The economic power of business can shape
world events. The political and military power of a
country is largely based on its economic power. A
nation's economic power is a product of its
business institution. At the conclusion of the
Second World War, Soviet leader Josef Stalin
toasted American business. He said that American
production capabilities had made the victory over
Nazi Germany possible.
CHAPTER 7: Power and Leadership
Business controls employment. A company
can create jobs by deciding to locate or expand in a
particular area. Financially, jobs benefit not only
employees but also the communities in which they
spend their money and the governments to whom
they pay taxes. Socially, alcoholism, crime, and
divorce rates decrease in areas with high employment.
By setting wage levels, business establishes
and maintains social classes.
The business institution controls what goods
and services are offered to society. Sometimes it
tries to create consumer demand through advertising.
Sometimes it is reacting to consumer demand
for a product. For example, in the 1970s, the rising
price of gasoline increased the demand for small
cars. The car industry responded by offering more
compact cars.
Business affects education. Educators from
A gas shortage results in
cars lined up for nearly 2 kill
at a New York City gas
station in June 1979. The
wortd-wide rise in gasoline
prices altered the automobile
industry as manufacturers
strove to meet the demand for more fuel- efficient cars.
UNIT 2: Political Culture
schools, colleges, and universities alwa^
business leaders when designing new
They want to ensure that the goals of edui
business overlap and that students are ta
they will need in the workplace.
Business plays a large role in politic
making. Government leaders often coi
ness leaders before creating new polici(
more, business is usually the largest coi
political campaigns. Candidates and pi
ties feel pressure to shape policies
maintain the support of business lead
The Military
In many nations the military institutio
powerful institution in society. The ;
of Chile, Fiji, Paraguay, and other nz
a^^eewsf^s ^fl^^'W.S^Ws'fS-i'?"''-'-
by military leaders. The military is also powerful in
countries that live under the constant threat of war,
such as those in the Middle East. The military, of
course, becomes very powerful during a war or in a
state of emergency because it becomes the
protector of the state and the people.
Even in a democracy at peace, the military
may wield considerable power. Part of its power is
based on the number of people involved. In 1989,
for instance, the Canadian armed forces employed
nearly one million people.
The military's power is also based on its ties to
government and business. This relationship developed
in many countries after the Second World
War, during the Cold War period. Governments of
From The New State of the World Atlas by Michael Kidron & Ronald
Educational Books.
Western countries perceived a need for a strong
military and granted large sums of money to build
its strength. The military in turn gave money to
business for equipment and supplies. As military
needs and technology changed, more money was
spent and the interdependence between government,
the military, and business grew.
American President Dwight Elsenhower
called this growing interdependence the militaryindustrial
complex. He warned that the power of
the military-industrial complex was growing to the
point where military and political decisions were
made based on money rather than actual needs.
The power of the Canadian military-industrial
complex was evident in 1987 when Prime Minister
Segal, published by Heinemann
CHAPTER 7: Power and Leadership 85
Labour
Labour refers to all the men and women in
who work. Most workers have a certain ai
power because they are citizens of a coun) can acquire more power by organizing th
into associations. Workers form ass
because they believe that they have mon
acting as a group rather than as individu;
associations are usually called unions.
organized labour refers to all unionizec
The first union in Canada was th
Typographical Union, founded in 1844
the 1930s did unions become wid(
Canada. Today, about 30 per cent of
workers are unionized. Because organ'
represents a significant percentage of
public, it has a great deal of polit
I) --i I ' "i^^ '-
. --« ,.."»««... .
fi,: :m,,.: i
"I ^wwV^'^'MSk.
Governments often consider the opinions of union
leaders when making decisions.
Labour has also exerted political power by
forming political parties. In Great Britain, the
Labour Party has formed governments and
remains a powerful opposition political force. In
Canada, the Canadian Labour Congress played a
large part in reshaping the old Cooperative
Commonwealth Federation, the CCF, into the New
Democratic Party in 1961.
Labour also has economic power which it
exerts through collective bargaining and the threat
of work stoppages. Collective bargaining means
that business cannot negotiate with individual
workers. Instead, management must negotiate one
contract with all union members through union
leaders. If management and the union do not reach
an agreement, the union can strike. The business
that is struck loses money because decreased
production means decreased sales. Other businesses
in the community lose money because
workers have less money to spend. The government
loses money from both reduced income taxes
and sales taxes.
The Media
The media refers to all means of communication
that reach the public, such as newspapers, magazines,
radio, movies, and television. The media
have power beyond their power as an agent of
political socialization.
Media's power exists because the media act as
a filter. It is through the media that most people learn about the actions of the other social
institutions. For example, television controls the
nightly news. It chooses what actions and events
are newsworthy. It decides the order in which news
stories will appear and how much time will be
allotted to each. It also chooses the words and
images that accompany news stories. These
decisions significantly influence both what people
Fig. 7.3 The Media as a Filter
The media acts as a filter through which almost all
information from and about the other institutions
passes to the public.
see and hear and what they think about what they
see and hear.
All social institutions recognize the power of
the media and all have adapted themselves to that
power. Business uses the media to influence the
public through advertising. Labour leaders hold
press conferences to win public support for their
demands. Military leaders use the media to win
public support for military objectives.
The government is the institution that has
changed most significantly in response to the
growing power of the media. Government leaders
and politicians have become almost as concerned
about how the media perceive them as they are
about policy decisions. Politicians tailor their *•
speeches to say what media polls tell them the
public wants to hear. They time important
announcements to ensure a spot on the evening
news. They write speeches that contain short
quotable lines, called sound bites, suitable for the
short spots on the television news rather than
outlining complex arguments. They employ media
consultants who teach them how to look and
perform on television. It is the triumph of style over
substance.
CHAPTER 7: Power and Leadership 87
Fig. 7.5 Elitism
Elitists believe that power in society is heic
elite that controls the five main social inst
People in society have no real power.
Supporters of the elitist school
believe that pluralists are somewhat
argue that a small group of individua
five main social institutions. This sm<
elite. By controlling these institutii
holds nearly all power in society.
This school notes that the leader
social institution share similar i
backgrounds, interests, and frienc
know and socialize with each oti
deals among themselves. This sma
disruptive competition in society a
low level to protect their power. 0
therefore, have little power in soc
Leadership
All social groups have leaders. A I
who can influence others to folio
her directions or beliefs. Four
amount of power a leader has. The size and nature
of the group he or she leads is important. The
student leaders in your school have considerably
less power than leaders of corporations. A leader's
power is also affected by the times in which he or
she leads. In most countries, generals have more
power during a war than in peacetime. Culture also
affects a leader's power. American business
leaders have more power than Japanese business
leaders because Japanese business leaders are
members of a team first and leaders second.
Finally, a leader's personality is important. All
teachers in your school are leaders but, by virtue of
their personalities, some exert more influence over
students than others.
Leadership Traits
Some people believe that leadership skills can be
taught. Others argue that certain individuals are
natural leaders and that people can only be taught
to use more effectively the skills they already have.
Both sides agree that there are certain traits that all
leaders possess.
Leaders have vision, the ability to see beyond
day-to-day concerns and details. They recognize
the long-term goals of the group they lead. Leaders
are able to motivate others to share their vision.
They can persuade others to work together to
accomplish the group's goals.
Leaders have the ability to make decisions.
The decisions leaders make are often difficult.
Options may not be clear and information that
decisions must be based on may be incomplete or
contradictory. Nonetheless, leaders must make the
decisions and then stand by them in the face of
criticism. Leaders must be self-confident. They
must understand and be sure of their abilities.
Self-confidence is often the source of a leader's
courage and ability to make tough decisions.
Trust is an important leadership trait. Followers
must trust their leader and a leader must trust
his or her followers. A leader will have no
credibility and will not be effective if followers do
not believe that she or he is acting in their best
interests. Leaders must have empathy for those
whom they lead. Empathy is the ability to
understand the needs, goals, and problems of
others. It is an important component of trust.
Effective leaders possess these leadership
traits to varying degrees. To be a truly effective
leader, followers must recognize these traits in a
leader's words and actions. In 1958, for example,
John Diefenbaker became the prime minister of
Canada when his party won a huge majority in the
House of Commons. He had tremendous personal
support. Some of his actions as prime minister,
however, led many people to think that he lacked
the leadership traits they had thought he possessed.
Whether his leadership ability had actually
changed was less important than the fact that a
majority of Canadians believed it had changed.
This perception diminished his effectiveness as a
leader. His party lost the next election.
Attaining Leadership
Many small, informal groups choose leaders by a
process of natural ascension. That is, they do not
develop a formal leadership selection procedure or
even discuss who should be leader. Someone
simply ends up leading. For example, when a group
of friends is trying to decide what to do on a Friday
night, one person's opinion often seems to carry
more weight. Through natural ascension, that
person has become the leader of the group.
Larger, more formal groups develop a process
of appointment. In many businesses, current
leaders appoint new leaders without consulting the
people who are to be led. Boards of education never
ask teachers whom they would like their next
principal to be.
Canadian political socialization teaches us that
we are able to choose our leaders. Consequently,
many social groups use a democratic voting
CHAPTER 7: Power and Leadership 89
Libyan President MoammarQadaffi is cheered by onlookers
His immense popularity with Libyan citizens allows him to
harsh international criticism.
procedure to choose leaders. In most service
groups, for instance, members nominate candidates
to stand for election. The members vote and
the chosen candidate becomes the leader.
Leadership can be inherited. Hereditary
succession means that leadership is passed to the
departing leader's child. Most monarchies are hereditary. Prince Charles will automatically
become king when his mother. Queen Elizabeth II,
either dies or steps down. Procedural succession is
not based on heredity. Instead, it is based on rules
90	UNIT 2: Political Culture
in Tripoli, the Libyan capital.
retain power in the face of
often outlined in constitutions. In thi
States, for example, if the president
becomes incapacitated, the vice-presi
comes president.
Force is another method of attainii
ship. In 1989, General Andres Rodrigue
by the military, overthrew the gover
Paraguay. He became the country's new
In business, education, and other social g
use of force may be more subtle but it cai
effective.
Animal Crackers

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Reprinted by permission: Tribune Media Services.
Types of Leaders
There are three main types of leaders. A bureaucratic
leader leads because he or she holds a
particular office. For instance, the principal is the
leader in a school. The staff and students may not
like or respect the principal or the decisions he or
she makes. Nonetheless, they obey his or her
directions because they accept the legitimacy of the
position of principal.
A patriarchal leader is respected for his or her
experience and seniority. Military leaders, for
example, are clearly ranked in order of importance.
However, soldiers in battle have often followed the
directions of the most experienced member of the
group even if his or her suggestions contradicted
orders of a superior officer.
A charismatic leader leads because she or he
has a personal magnetism that attracts people. A
charismatic political leader can attain the status
usually achieved by rock stars or movie idols.
American President John IF. Kennedy was a
charismatic leader. His wit, good looks, and charm
attracted huge crowds during the 1960 presidential
election and helped him win.
Charismatic leadership is the least stable type
of leadership because the public is often very
fickle. Traits that are seen as admirable one day
may become unattractive the next. The result is
that the leader loses charismatic appeal. Leadership
based primarily on charisma will always eventually
erode.
Leaders do not often fit neatly into one
category of leadership. For example. Sir John A.
Macdonald began his political career as a charismatic
leader. As prime minister, he was a
bureaucratic leader. Because of his reputation as a
skilled negotiator and experienced administrator,
he was a patriarchal leader.
Summary
Power is the ability to influence the thoughts and
actions of others. A leader is someone who can
influence others to follow or accept his or her
directions or beliefs. All leaders have power but
not all those with power are leaders.
How power is distributed in a society can tell
us a great deal about a society's political culture.
The roles and characteristics of the leaders will tell
us even more. Examining power and leadership is
an important part of the study of political culture as
well as the study of politics. We can see that even
when power rests with a single leader, it is still
ultimately based on the support of followers.
Leaders who ignore this fact are doomed to a short
and unpleasant leadership experience.

CHAPTER 7: Power and Leadership
Looking Closer
Summarize
1. Define: a. power b. leadership.
2. Describe several aspects of a government's
power.
3. How does business influence society?
4. What is the military-industrial complex?
5. Describe the nature of labour's economic and
political power,
6. Why is the media like a filter?
7. What is the difference between the elitist and
pluralist interpretations of power in society?
8. What are five ways a person can become a
leader?
f9. What are the three main types of leaders?
1. Complete the following in groups:
a. List the leadership traits that an effective
prime minister of Canada needs. Prioritize
the list.
• b. Compare your lists to the lists made by
other groups. Why did some people choose
traits that others did not? What is the
significance of the different lists?
92	UNIT 2: Political Culture
2. Consider the social groups with whic
involved, your family, teams, wor)
and so on. Create and complete a
son-organizer chart that shows th
leader each group has and how lea
attained in each.
Analyse
1. Do you believe that the elitist or pi'
of power is more valid? Ex;
answer.
2. In a book called The Power Elite
Mills states that the media give
identity, aspirations, and an esc
nism. Give specific examples
media do each of these things. E
Mills overstates the power of
Discuss your answer.
3. Discuss the validity of the foll<
tion;
In the last analysis, any {
authority exists only 1
consent to obey it. In th
exists is not so much th
the obedience.
Pierre 1
Spotlight: Pierre Trudeau (1919- )
On the night before the 1968 Canadian federal election, millions of
Canadians were fascinated by what they saw on television. The
annual St-Jean-Baptiste Day parade in Montreal had turned into a
riot. The crowd was hurling rocks and bottles at dignitaries
assembled on a raised platform. As others scrambled for cover,
Prime Minister Trudeau sat defiantly in his place. It was the last day
of a dynamic campaign and the beginning of an exciting and
important era in Canadian history.
Pierre Elliot Trudeau was born into a rich, bilingual, Quebec
family. Although a brilliant student, he was often in trouble at school.
He graduated from the Universite de Montreal, Harvard, and the
London School of Economics. After graduation, he travelled around
the world on his own. He wrote for a radical Qu6bec newspaper and
was respected in Quebec as an outspoken intellectual.
In 1965, at the urging of Prime Minister Lester Pearson, Trudeau
joined the Liberal Party and ran for office. He quickly became a
powerful MP and, in 1967, became the Minister of Justice. He
became nationally known for liberalized divorce and abortion bills.
Trudeau summed up his reforms with the quip, "The state has no
business in the bedrooms of the nation."
Trudeau's new responsibilities did not change his lifestyle.
Instead of a limousine, Trudeau often drove a red convertible sports
car. He sometimes appeared at meetings wearing an ascot and
sandals.
In 1968. Lester Pearson resigned. Trudeau became the new
leader of the Liberal Party and, because the Liberals formed the
government at the time, the prime minister. He quickly called an
election. Large crowds awaited him at every campaign stop. The
millionaire bachelor was treated as a rock star or movie personality.
The excitment he created was dubbed Trudeaumania. Quebecers
supported him because he was one of their own. Many anglophone
Canadians supported him as a Quebecer who would end the
separatist threat in Quebec. The Liberals won a large majority.
Trudeau entered politics with a clear vision of Canada. He
believed Canada should be unified under a strong federal
government that represented all regions of the country equally. He
believed Canada should recognize its French as well as its English
roots. The most significant challenge to his vision came from Quebec
CHAPTER 7: Power and Leadership 93
---s^s.^^ss
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Supreme Coun ru
Pierre Trudeau acknowledges
the thunderous applause
of his supporters at
the Liberal leadership convention
in 1968. He won the
convention and went on to
become Canada's longest
serving French Canadian
prime minister
Canadian political tradition. Finally, the provincial and federal
governments reached an agreement and in April, 1982, Trudeau
and Queen Elizabeth signed the new Canadian constitution.
Levesque, however, refused to sign the constitution because he
believed that it did not give Quebec enough power or protection.
Over a number of months in 1983, Trudeau persuaded many
government leaders to agree to certain principles that he believed
would make global peace and disarmament possible. His peace
initiative was consistent with earlier actions. For example, he had
ordered all nuclear missiles and nuclear-capable planes to be
removed from Canada's armed forces.
On 29 February 1984, Trudeau took an evening walk and, in the
middle of a snowstorm, decided he had had enough. The next day,
he announced his retirement. Critics, especially those from western
provinces, called him arrogant and unconcerned about any region
of the country other than central Canada. Admirers said that he had
increased Canadians' pride in their country and Canada's stature
in the world.

^
M

CHAPTER 7: Power and Leadership
~^y^
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Case Study ^2--Politics and
A poll is a survey. Information is collected from a
small number of people who belong to a larger
group and then analysed to determine what the
whole group believes. A poll consists of a question
or questions. Poll questions are either multiple
choice or can be answered yes or no. The people
who answer the questions are called respondents. All the respondents make up the sample group. For
a poll to be accurate, the sample group must be
large and representative of the whole group. For
example, if the group is 50% women, the sample
group should ideally be half women. The larger the
sample group, the more accurate the poll results
will be. The answers from the sample group are
called raw data. The last step in conducting a poll
is to analyse the raw data to draw conclusions.
A government agency called Statistics Canada
is the most important polling organization in
Canada. It collects, analyses, and publishes economic,
social, and general statistics about Canada
and Canadians. Governments, business, researchers,
and individuals use the information it produces.
It collects much of its information through
polls. There are also a number of independent
Canadian polling companies.
A poll usually takes four to seven days to
complete. For a national poll, a computer randomly
picks telephone numbers from across the country.
The sample groups of most national polls are
around 1500. Polling companies try to categorize
respondents to determine the opinions of people
from different groups. Categories include sex, age,
language, region, and so on.
The pollsters then weight the raw data to fit
Statistics Canada information about Canadians.
For example, if only 30 per cent of the respondents
are women, a mathematical formula would determine
what the results would be using the actual
Polls
percentage of women who live in Canada. By
weighting the data, the polling company can ensure
that the sample group is representative of the
Canadian population as a whole.
Polling companies work hard to make their
polls as accurate as possible. In a poll with 1500
respondents, the results will reflect the opinions of
all Canadians with a margin of error of plus or
minus 2.5%, nineteen out of twenty times. A
margin of error such as this means that if a poll
shows that 70 per cent of students asked say that
they like their teachers, you can conclude that
between 67.5 per cent and 72.5 per cent of all
Canadian students like their teachers. If the same
poll were conducted twenty times, the results
would be the same nineteen times.
Environics Election 1988 Poll
Question: Which party leader would make the best
prime minister?
Conclusion: Brian Mulroney 37%
John Turner 27%
Ed Broadbent 23%
Undecided 13%
Poll Analysis: Region Number of
Respondents
Atlantic 123
Quebec 314
Ontario 460
Manitoba 61
Saskatchewan 53
Alberta 120 BE 144
Total 1275
CASE STUDY #1 - Politics and Polls 97
Polls are most often in the news when they
concern political issues or elections. All three
major political parties employ polling companies.
Canadian political parties began using polls during
the 1930 federal election. By the early 1970s,
computers had made polling faster and more
accurate. In 1974, for the first time, the Liberals
shaped their successful campaign largely on the
basis of poll results. Since then, all three major
political parties have become dependent on polls.
In the 1988 federal election, the Liberals, Progressive
Conservatives, and NDP conducted polls
every day. They added this confidential information
to the twenty-six independent polls conducted
< : ''	-'--.--------	The Globe and Mail.
by or for the media. During
campaign, over 150 polls were conducted.
Even before an election is called,
determine what the dominant issues and stri
of the campaigns will be. For example, ifj
states that Canadians are concerned ab
environment, all three parties will make s
their candidates discuss the environment. I
more, if a poll suggests that Canadians c
with part of one party's platform, the other
will constantly remind the public of that iss
attempt to win votes for themselves. P
sometimes dictate the schedules of party
For instance, if a poll suggests that party i
Bwwmo»
^W,MW^WW S&WK^IWBTVANPW"
weak in one region, the leader will go there to try to
win support.
Polls affect the media's election coverage.
When a poll suggests that the public finds a party, issue, or person important or interesting, the media
adjusts their coverage accordingly. After a favourable
poll, someone who received little media
exposure may suddenly find himself or herself on
the front pages of newspapers and on national
television. If a poll shows that a party is leading in
public support, the media may discuss the type of
government that party could form.
Polls can, therefore, start a bandwagon effect. That is, once a poll suggests that a party is doing
very well, people who might not otherwise have
considered voting for that party may begin taking it
more seriously. Other people may shift their
support because they want to be part of the
winning team. More volunteers may work for the
party in local ridings. Party workers may cram
all-candidates meetings and party rallies. More
money may be donated to the party. A bad poll, of
course, can have a reverse bandwagon effect.
Polling can affect voter turnout. If polls
convince people that one party is sure to win, they
may decide not to bother voting. On the other
hand, if polls show that the election will be close,
people may be sure to vote because they believe
their vote is important.
A federal law states that each party receives
money fo? each candidate that it fields. It also sets
limits on the amount a party can spend on a
campaign. The cost of polling, however, does not
count toward the overall cost of the campaign. Polls
are expensive. In the 1988 election, the Progressive
Conservatives spent $5 million on polls. Polling's
importance and prohibitive cost has reduced the
chance of federal electoral success for small
parties.
Once in office, a government continues to pay
attention to polls. Government officials may rush
or postpone new laws according to what polls say
are the current concerns of the public. Depending
on polls is called governing by polls and has
become increasingly common among all levels of
government. For example, governments always try
to call elections when their party is leading in the
polls.
Many people have criticized the growing
power of polls. Some critics believe that polls
distort the electoral process. Others, however,
argue that polls are useful because they force
governments to be more accountable to the
public.
A poll conducted in November 1988 indicated
that 85 per cent of Canadians did not believe that
their vote or political beliefs were affected by polls.
Party leaders consistently claim that they pay no
attention to polls. Perhaps former Prime Minister
John Diefenbaker was right when he said that the
only one who really knew what to do with a 'poll'
was his dog.
CASE STUDY #2 - Politics and Polls 99
A radio station conducted a p(
what were the most popular soi
The top ten songs from that
below. What do you need to k
poll to evaluate its validity?
1. "HeyIude"TheBeatle<
2. "Bridge Over Troubled \
and Garrunkel
3. "Your Song" -Hton loh
4. "My Girl" -The Tempt
5. "Every Breath You Tak(
6. "Don't Be Cruel" -Elvi
7. "Imagine"--John Lennc
8. "You've Lost That
--Righteous Brothers
9. "Endless Love"-Lione na Ross
10. "Stand By Me" -Ben
Your values affect what you think and do. For this goal by punishing corporate pc
example, perhaps you believe it is important to closing environmentally dangerous fad
respect other people's ideas and their right to Various ideologies represent diffel
express them. This belief would shape your beliefs but are similar in many ways
opinion on whether or not the government should 1 certain values. All have evolved over m;
censor books, music, or movies. It would influence political philosophers and leaders ada^ your political opinions about the role of govern- reflect changing conditions. A ninetee
ment in society. In this way, your values shape your liberal, for example, would disagree w
beliefs about people, society, government, eco- ,„,,.,„„„ , .,
,.- . - i lr> the late 1980s, many people becam
nomics, and hte m general, concerned about the environment. Qo\ Ideologies serve three important functions, corporations were forced to reassess
They help people understand their society because consider the environmental impact of t
1 ft-~ --i i- -c. \. -i i and political decisions. This trend has imp
' they provide a common base of shared values, ical consequences.
People use this base to measure society's actions. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Imagine, for example, that the government has ^^Hl^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l
decided to dose a factory that has been polluting
the environment. If protecting the environment is a ,,^;; '^llfllllMul^^k.
priority of the dominant ideology, most people
would support the decision. If business interests ||..:
or full employment is the highest priority, most
people would not support the decision. %:,^-^.- :\';...:::''N5SK^^B^:- '
^Ideologies. allow people_and^ovemments to $:l/:'';^My^fc»^rtl''?ISl'S^ justify or explain past actions. Let us return to'the ||:' '.. .'. ''^fWIJlllliy- ' ''^^ISilas
[/ example or the factory closure. A number of years || w ^ ^H
have passed since the factory was dosed. The air T »
and water are deaner but the area now suffers from | ^ high unemployment. The government could ex- 7 ? plain that, according to the dominant ideology, the
environmental benefits far outweigh the economic «».
' ^g
Governments and societies also use ideologies ^^^^^^HEll^^^^----Ui
~}^ set future Jgoals and policies. For example,
suppose that a cleaner environment is a govern- * ment goal. The government could try to achieve
the values of a twentieth-century liberal. The
ideologies that shape our world today are continuing
to evolve.
When studying ideologies, it is important to
keep an open mind. You will encounter values that
may be different from your own. An ideology that
jt is inconsisientwith Canada's political culture is not ^necessanly_wrong^ Examining ideologies with an 4 open mind will not only enhance your appreciation
of other values, it will also help you to evaluate
both your society's and your personal values.
The Political Spectrum
r The political spectrum represents, the range of ' political-JaeIiefs jn_a society. Political scientists 1 evaluate political beliefs and"ideologies to study i
the differences and similarities among groups of ]
people/governments, and countries. 1
Political scientists have developed labels to
describe sets of political beliefs. The most corn- 1 monly used labels are left wing, right wing, and 1 centre. The main differences between them are i
beliefs about human nature and the role of the state
in society. For example, some people agree with
Thomas Hobbes that people are basically selfish i
and need moral and legal limits on their behaviour, i
They believe, for example, that the state should
pass laws that limit what the public can read. i
Anti-pomography laws fall into this category. ;
P^ogle_whohoTd these views belong to the right ;
' wing of the political spectrum on this issue. y''~~~'
Fig. 8.1 The Political Spectrum Left Centre
USSR	Sweden	Canada
Other people believe that John Locke's view of luman nature is more correct. That is, people are magically unselfish and can make their own iecisions concerning what they should or should lot do. For example, geople should be free to read
ivhat they want without state interference. People
A?hoTRot3 these views^re on the left of the political spectrum on this issue.
Many people see merit in both right- and
.eft-wing opinions. They argue, for example, that people should, be allowed to choose what to read.
Monetheless, some legal restrictions on pornography
should be injplace to protect[societyasawhole.
People who hold these views are at the centre of the
political spectrum on this issue.
Democratic governments reflect their society's
dominant ideology. Most Canadians, for sxample, have centre or slightly left-of-centre
political values. Canadian governments have traditionally
passed laws that reflect these values.
Authoritarian governments pass laws that reflect
their ideological beliefs. Governments both reflect
the dominant ideology and impose their ideology
on society.
Political scientists often classify societies by
placing them on the political spectrum. The
dominant ideology that shapes their political
culture determines their position on the spectrum.
This classification allows comparisons between
countries. A country's position on the political
spectrum can change as new governments or new
government policies alter a country's political
culture.
Right
Great USA Iran
Britain
CHAPTER 8: Modern Ideologies 103
Your values affect what you think and do. For
example, perhaps you believe it is important to
respect other people's ideas and their right to
express them. This belief would shape your
opinion on whether or not the government should
censor books, music, or movies. It would influence
your political opinions about the role of government
in society. In this way, your values shape your
beliefs about people, society, government, economics,
and life in general.
Ideologies serve three important functions.
They help people understand their society because
' they provide a common base of shared values.
People use this base to measure society's actions.
Imagine, for example, that the government has
decided to close a factory that has been polluting
the environment. If protecting the environment is a
priority of the dominant ideology, most people
would support the decision. If business interests
or full employment is the highest priority, most
people would not support the decision.
^Ideologies allow^people^nd^ovemments to
justify or^ explain past actions. Let us return tcTthe ;/ example oF the factory closure. A number of years
have passed since the factory was closed. The air
and water are cleaner but the area now suffers from
high unemployment. The government could explain
that, according to the dominant ideology, the
environmental benefits far outweigh the economic
costs.
Governments and societies also use ideologies
!jo set future goals and policies. For example,
suppose that a cleaner environment is a government
goal. The government could try to achieve
102	UNIT 3: Ideologies
Modem Idee
this goal by punishing corpor
closing environmentally dangero
Various ideologies represert
beliefs but are similar in many
certain values. All have evolved o
political philosophers and leader
reflect changing conditions. A n
liberal, for example, would disag
In the late 1980s, many people b
concerned about the environment
corporations were forced to rec
consider the environmental impac
and political decisions. This trend he
ical consequences.
the values of a twentieth-century liberal. The
ideologies that shape our world today are continuing
to evolve.
When studying ideologies, it is important to
keep an open mind. You will encounter values that
may be different from your own. An ideology that
rf: is inconsistent with Canada's political culture is not ^necessanly_wrong^ Examining ideologies with an
», open mind will not only enhance your appreciation
of other values, it will also help you to evaluate
both your society's and your personal values.
The Political Spectrum
The political spectrum represents JLhe range of ) political-Jieliefs m_a society. Political scientists < evaluate political belief'TancTideologies to study i
the differences and similarities among groups of ] people,' governments, and countries. 1
Political scientists have developed labels to
describe sets of political beliefs. The most com- if monly used labels are' left wing, right wing, and 1 centre. The main differences between them are i
beliefs about human nature and the role of the state
in society. For example, some people agree with
Thomas Hobbes that people are basically selfish i
and need moral and legal limits on their behaviour, i
They believe, for example, that the state should
pass laws that limit what the public can read.
Anti-pomography laws fall into this category.
P^ople_whohold these views belong to the right :
/ wing of the political spectrum on this issue.
^~ --"""--"""'""" ~'
/
Fig. 8.1 The Political Spectrum Left Centre
USSR	Sweden	Canada
I""'
Other people believe that John Locke's view of
mman nature is more correct. That is, people are basically unselfish and can make their own iecisions concerning what they should or should -lot do. For example, people should be free to read what they want without state interference. People
ivhoTiotd these views Jire on the left of the political spectrum on this issue.
Many people see merit in both right- and
[eft-wing opinions. They argue, for example, that
people should-be allowed to choose what to read. SJonetheless, some legal restrictions on'pornography
should be inplace to protect society as a whole.
People who hold these views are at the centre of the
political spectrum on this issue.
Democratic governments reflect their society's
dominant ideology. Most Canadians, for
example, have centre or slightly left-of-centre
political values. Canadian governments have traditionally
passed laws that reflect these values.
Authoritarian governments pass laws that reflect
their ideological beliefs. Governments both reflect
the dominant ideology and impose their ideology
on society.
Political scientists often classify societies by
placing them on the political spectrum. The
dominant ideology that shapes their political
culture determines their position on the spectrum.
This classification allows comparisons between
countries. A country's position on the political
spectrum can change as new governments or new
government policies alter a country's political
culture.
Right
Great USA Iran
Britain
CHAPTER 8: Modem Ideologies 103
, Revolution angered a ^^b^evedthatitprovec
ened Burke. He^beUe^
views ^aturTu^ermore.heb.
destructive nature t ^ ^
^^Tbv the revolting xnassesc
threatened by the r ^
ested ^er-dass^^^
revolution, he wrote, lUurtr
lower classes to care rnor^or^
forthewellbemgofsoc^
^ebeUeve^^^
society's valuesan-^ property, <
classes. Becausethey^^^
and are ^^^ood of sod.
P10^ ^S be Apolitical and r
classes should be thef' ^
society. Government ^,^i
V^i0^ S^o^ *--"
"''"n^TO, Scottish econom
1 i n^TlitWwik" ^e a booked ^ ^
that manufacturers
^ ^ris a^site h l^^ns.Th^
^^X^Se ^tyb'S.G""'"'8'
£o£^°?^
--r^^;
^-^^
t
::!
As ^ r^hefed^thepoUtolsys^ ^
^S^*^^^ ic
Supporter", o' ea<:h.l.°t°w belts' "if ttle, ^ ^ other abo^ «he ^e ^ ^
ideology. There are "°^ i includes a
?
ideologies are constantly ,gg realities- There
ne^Ssial^S^^n'aiose who war^o are always struts betw ^ ^ atua
alter ideologic,! ^^e that old ideas are bes^
^^^^^
^^^^^ ^er refers to ^"^^le, Uberi refers to
^ran^S^5101116^^'
Conservatism
Edmund Burke was an Irish writer and political t
philosopher. In 1790, he wrote an essay called i
Reflections on the Resolution in France. Burke thoroughly
opposed the French Revolution. Although he did
not use the word conservative, his essay and
subsequent books and articles are the foundation
of the conservative ideology.
Burke argued that society is organic. That is, it
is like a living creature. Change must be gradual
and controlled. People should respect tradition and
the ways of the past. To suddenly break with
tradition, he wrote, betrays the lessons taught by
past generations and dooms future generations to
despair and uncertainty.
As the nineteenth century progressed, many
governments began to pass laws to protect
labourers from the effects of industrialization.
These laws restricted the power of the wealthy to
exploit workers. At the same time, the right to vote
was extended to more and more people. Conservatives
believed that these government actions
threatened traditional values and the power of the
upper classes. They started to believe that government
power should be restricted. Consequently,
they started to support laissez-faire capitalism.
Twentieth-century conservatism continues to
support these two rather contradictory positions.
On the one hand, conservatives still support
Burke's idea that laws to monitor behaviour and
protect people from their dangerous impulses are
necessary. On the other hand, they support the
laissez-faire economists who believe that the
economy runs most efficiently when government
intervention is minimal.
Blenheim Palace in Oxford- shire, England. The palace
was built with taxpayers' money in the early 1700s for
John Churchill, first Duke of
Mariborough. In the conservative
tradition of the time,
such expenditures were
seen by the aristocrats as
proper compensation for
working to improve society
and as a way to perpetuate
the separation of the
classes.
Liberalism
The roots of modem liberalism can be traced to
John Locke. In his book entitled Two Treatises, published in 1690, he stated that people are
basically good. They are able to control destructive
urges and can cooperate to organize safe and stable
societies. Locke argued that government's role
should be limited. It should only protect people's
rights to safety and the ownership of property.
Locke believed that society is like a machine. If
necessary, changes can be made rapidly to increase
its efficiency. People should consider tradition but
blind adherence to old ways hinders positive
change.
Thomas Jefferson used Locke's ideas when he
wrote the American Declaration of Independence
in 1776. Although he did not support universal
suffrage, Jefferson believed that a democratically
elected government best protects the rights of
individuals. He saw government power as the
4
CHAPTER 8: Modem Ideologies
Workers on a governmentsponsored
road building
program during the Depression.
The New Deal had
political, economic, and
social consequences that
are still evident today.
enemy of individual freedom. For this reason, he
supported laissez-faire capitalism.
In the nineteenth century, many corporations
formed monopolies and became very powerful.
Many people began to believe that what was good
for these monopolies and the members of the
upper classes who controlled them was not good
for the rest of society. They started to believe that
the enemy of individual freedom was corporate
power rather than government power.
Liberalism changed. Liberals turned away
from laissez-faire capitalism. They began to
pressure governments to curb the economic power
of corporations. At the same time, however, they
continued to believe that government should not
infringe on the personal freedom of individuals.
The government does not need to nor should it
restrict social behaviour.
Many twentieth-century governments have
incorporated liberal ideas in their policies. In 1933,
UNIT 3: Ideologies
for example, American President Fr;
velt sponsored a number of laws kno
ly as the New Deal. The New D
government's role in the Americal
created welfare payments, unempli ance, government-sponsored work
more. Roosevelt reduced govemm
social behaviour by repealing the pi
that had made the manufacture an<
illegal. Twentieth-century liberalia
support the perhaps contradictory I in the New Deal.
Socialism
Robert Owen was a wealthy c owner. He often ventured into worl
to see how the workers lived. He
wrong that a few rich people own
lived in luxury while the thousand
worked in the factories lived in poverty. He
decided to build a new factory surrounded by a
town. Owen and the workers owned the factory
together. The factory's profits were used to build
roads, schools, and stores that were also jointly
owned.
Owen's ideas of cooperative ownership were
not new. In the late 1700s, the comte de
Saint-Simon, a French philosopher, had argued
that society should be egalitarian. That is, society
should be based on the economic, political, and
social equality of all people. Everyone should
contribute equally and share equally. Owen based
his work and writing on Saint-Simon's ideas. Owen coined the word socialism to describe his beliefs.
Owen and other early socialists agreed with
John Locke that society was like a machine. Change
J.S. Woodsworth was the first leader of the socialist Cc
Federation, founded in 1932. In 1961, the CCF became the
time when many Canadians feared socialism and co
Woodsworth's intellect, sincerity, and background as a Me1
credibility.
could be swift and drastic. Although many
socialists respected tradition, they believed that
old-fashioned ways had to be changed because
they no longer served the needs of most people.
Early socialists believed that people are the
products of their environments. Bad environments
will produce bad people. The class system was the
major cause of destructive social environments. It
produced societies based on inequality of opportunity
and an unequal distribution of wealth.
Equality among the classes was necessary for
everyone to be free from want.
Socialists argued that government must take
an active role in the economy. It must ensure that
either it or the workers in cooperatives own the
means of production. Government must curb
the power of the upper classes and corporations.
In 1848, German political philosopher Karl
3-operative rO^rndftwealth
New Democratic Party. At a
nfused it with communism.
1-iodlst minister gave the CCF
CHAPTER 8: Modern Ideologies 107
Marx and German economist Friedrich Engels
wrote The Communist Manifesto. The book supported
socialism but criticized Owenite socialists
as Utopian dreamers. Marx and Engels called their
form of socialism scientific socialism. They wrote
that struggles between the classes have shaped the
different stages of history. For the proletariat to
enjoy the fruits of its labour; it must violently
overthrow the bourgeoisie. Once the workers
control the means of production, the government
would not be necessary. People would live in a
classless society that would allow for individual
freedom and equality of opportunity.
The Communist Manifesto caused a split among
socialists. In Great Britain, a group of socialists
called the Fabian Society wrote articles and spoke
at meetings. Its members argued that violent revolution
was not necessary for social change. They
argued that a socialist state could evolve peacefully
in a democratic society. The government could
promote social welfare. It could own major corporations
to ensure that workers were not exploited.
Profits would serve everyone rather than enriching
a small elite. Few laws that restrict social behaviour
would be necessary. These beliefs became the
foundation of modem democratic socialism.
In 1960, Gunnar Myrdal, a Swedish government
official and political economist wrote Beyond
the Welfare State. He noted that no government
actually practises laissez-faire capitalism. In fact, all governments carefully direct their economies.
Since a government-directed economy with limited
state ownership is one of the main goals of
socialism, Myrdal wrote, all governments are
essentially socialist. Myrdal concluded that the
Utopian ideas of Owen's cooperative socialism and
the violence of Marx's scientific socialism are
obsolete. The essence of modern democratic
socialism, he said, is the understanding that social
welfare is the responsibility of the government.
Citizens expect governments to create and maintain
programs to fulfill that responsibility.
108	UNIT 3: Ideologies
Communism
Communism has progressed through
stages. The first stage began with the p The Communist Manifesto in 1848. Mar
argued that a temporary dictator'
proletariat would govern after revol'
world's industrialized nations. Eventi less society would evolve and the
wither away. The workers would
means of production. They would sl
and all wealth created by the work < called the final stage of socialism
People's naturally good characte
capitalism destroys, would re-er
communist state.
Marx and Engels wrote tha
places a high value on work. Wor
dignity and allows them to contril Through work, people earn the rig
wealth of society. Marx and Enge]
people should accept any work, re
or the nature of the job. Marx su
thoughts with the phrase, "From e;
ability, to each according to need'
Russian revolutionary Vladin
second stage of communism. Le:
Marx and Engels's goals. Howev
about the best way to achieve th
believed that a revolution of the
take place in even undevelopf countries. But he believed that the
not begin a revolution by themsel
would have to be led by a grou
revolutionaries. The group would
party that would govern the < revolution. To ensure that the go;
were implemented, the party we
all social and political activities
would own and control all me;
Lenin successfully led the 19171
and imposed his views of cc
Soviet Union.
<^^^
Baltic states:
(Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania)
Increased nationalism permitted
East Germany:
Increased access to the West,
Berlin Wall down 1989
Poland:
Open elections and the
legalization of independent
trade union
Hungary:
Beginning of a multiparty system
Algeria:
Removed "socialism"
from the constitution
and freer market
economy
Angola:
Liberalized private-sector
economy
0 1000 2000 kill
Fig. 8.2 The Changing Face of Communism, November 19
Josef Stalin, Lenin's successor, led the third
stage of communism. Because Stalin was more
interested in personal power than ideology,
communism became more authoritarian. Workers
were moved from job to job and place to place
according to economic needs that the central
government established. Secrecy and state terror
maintained control. Communist parties in other
countries were forced to adopt these new beliefs
and methods. Communist ideology became the
same as Stalin's policies.
Communism's fourth stage began after the
Second World War. Communist leaders in other
nations began to adapt communist beliefs and
methods to address the situations in their coun-
tries. In 1948, Yugoslavian President Josip Tito was
the first to announce that he would govern
according to traditional communist beliefs and no
longer follow Stalin's orders.
Perhaps more significantly, Mao Zedong
adapted communism to China. Unlike Marx and
Lenin, Mao believed that a communist revolution
could begin in the countryside. In 1949, he led a
successful communist revolution.
Communism's fifth stage began in 1985 when
Mikhail Gorbachev became the Secretary General
of the Soviet Union. He stated that world
revolution was no longer a goal of communism.
Other goals remained but new methods were
needed to achieve them. He instituted a series of
CHAPTER 8: Modem Ideologies
F<
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FR1;intellect. Terror is used to destroy enemies and
intimidate others into supporting fascist goals.
Fascism creates a constant war-like condition.
Government-promoted hatred unites people
against internal and external enemies of the state.
Fascism supports the belief that people are children
who need to be sternly led and who can be easily
manipulated. The role of citizens is simply to serve
the state. Fascism promotes a charismatic leader to
whom total obedience is demanded.
While in prison in the early 1920s, Adolf
Hitler studied Mussolini's fascism. In 1933, Hitler
became the chancellor of Germany. Under Hitler,
racism became part of fascism. He argued that Nordic peoples, whom he called Aryans, were the
master race and that all others must either die or
serve them. Twelve million Jews, Gypsies, communists,
socialists, Slavs, and others were murdered
between 1933 and 1945 when Hitler put his fascist
policies into practice.
In the 1930s, fascist movements and parties
developed in Belgium, Portugal, Spain, and Japan.
In the 1940s, fascist movements also appeared
briefly in Romania and Hungary. Except in Spain
and Japan, fascism failed to become popular,
largely because no national party had a leader
with enough charisma to build a coalition of
supporters.
Fascism was more successful in Argentina.
Juan Peron became the leader of the military
officers who seized power in 1943. He united the
lower and middle classes against the traditional
Looking Closer Summarize
1. Explain the three functions of an ideology.
2. Summarize the differences between the
beliefs of the political right and left.
power of the upper-class rulers and American
imperialism. He believed that, because of Argentina's
"pure" racial population, it should lead the
struggle to modernize South America. Peron's
blatantly corrupt and violent government was
overthrown by the military in 1955. A number of
modern political leaders have used fascist techniques
to attain or maintain power. Per6n,
however, was the last leader who openly spoke of
creating a fascist state.
Summary
Ideologies change over time. Their popularity and
influence also change. Some ideologies dominate
countries and regions for years and shape the lives
of millions of people. Monarchism, for instance,
was the dominant ideology of Europe for centuries
until it was swept aside by the forces of liberalism,
conservatism, and socialism in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries. Fascism's influence rose and
then fell in the mid-twentieth century. In 1989, a
number of political scientists suggested that
communism's influence was fading as it adapted
more and more liberal ideas.
Throughout these changes, ideology continues
to play an important role as the basis for all
political systems. Political systems, like people, are
judged and shaped by their values.
3. Why do political beliefs vary among people
who support the same ideology?
4. Explain the differences between nineteenthand
twentieth-century conservatism.
CHAPTER 8: Modem Ideologies 111
S V- - ^^^s
5- nineteenth- a"^* between saen-
, Explainthe "'""JSSusm.
6- tificandde»°o*(»»«>-""-»
:. sr::::^-sotfa8dn7 A
r9^-^^^-^
chart that compares
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minority ethn1,^ roles in s- groups ^^ Assess tl
:^S^eBveideo
P1^115^ - five ideologies
2- ^^^^
3. ^^^^ the centre of t^e P^ ^
significance does ^
^STp^^
three maioi v answer.
Spotlight: Margaret Thatcher (1925- )
Margaret Thatcher's nickname is the Iron Lady. Some claim that this
name refers to her incredible physical stamina. She is a workaholic
who consistently works fourteen-hour days. Others say the
nickname refers to her political toughness. This toughness has
helped her become the first British prime minister to serve three
consecutive terms. Thatcher is Great Britain's longest serving prime
minister of this century. She is also the first woman prime minister in
British and European history.
Thatcher was born to a middle-class family. Her father was the
local grocer. Thatcher did well in school and particularly enjoyed
class discussions and debates. At university, she studied chemistry
and, at the same time, became active in politics. In 1959, she won a
hard-fought election and became a Conservative Member of
Parliament.
From the beginning of her political career, her views were to the
right of most Conservative supporters. For example, she disliked the
power of labour unions. She believed that socialist Labour
governments were wrong to become so heavily involved in the
economy. She disliked the idea that the state owned companies. In
the 1960s, she became nationally known for her criticism of the
Labour Party's beliefs and for her enthusiastic promotion of
conservative goals.
The British economy went through a period of instability in the
late 1960s. Strikes crippled many major industries. The situation
grew worse in the 1970s when the Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries dramatically raised the price of oil. A recession
quickly developed. Many people lost their jobs. The Labour
government seemed unable to deal with the economic troubles.
In 1975, Margaret Thatcher ran for the leadership of the
Conservative Party. She promised to restructure all aspects of
British society using conservative ideas. She won the leadership
race. The Conservative Party went on to win the 1979 election. As
prime minister, Thatcher had a chance to put her ideas into
practice.
Thatcher's government amended labour laws to reduce the
power of trade unions. Corporations reduced pay levels and
ignored demands for job security and better working conditions.
The government sold many of its state-owned industries. She
CHAPTER 8: Modern Ideologies
114	UNIT 3: Ideologies
justified her economic policies as necessary ste
laissez-faire capitalism.
Thatcher initiated many conservative socL
secondary school students were required to take a
of compulsory subjects. The government found privc
build affordable housing for the poor. It altered rei
give more freedom of action to landlords. The hei
was changed. Doctors were allowed to establish ]
outside the National Health Service. Thatcher expic
could no longer expect the government to take c
They would have to become more self-reliant.
For many years, a terrorist group called the
Army had used violence to try to persuade the Briti
grant self-rule to Northern Ireland. Despite death th
escape from an IRA assassination attempt, Tha
insisted that she would never surrender British cc
Ireland. As long as there was the possibility of
troops would remain.
In 1982, Argentina prepared to invade the Fo
assert its sovereignty. Thatcher said that the islar
the coast of Argentina, had always been Brit
threatened war if Argentina invaded. When An
attacked the islands, the British navy sailed thousc
to repel them. A short but bloody war ensued ar
defeated. Before the war, British polls had indicat
popularity was slipping but after the war her popv
The Conservatives easily won the next election.
Thatcher has taken many unpopular stands..'
most British citizens opposed the installation o
short- and intermediate-range nuclear missiles in
believed the weapons were necessary to deter
and supported the policy. When the Comir
unanimously supported economic sanctions agai
try to combat apartheid, Thatcher refused to go a]
they would hurt only black South Africans
economy.
Many British citizens have protested ai
conservative policies. Liberals and socialists ar
not care about the average British citizen. Thatcht
conservative policies help British society as a v
help everyone. Critics argue that her foreig
Margaret Thatcher, the longest serving Bhtish prime minister this century. During her
term, the dominant political ideology of Great Britain has moved significantly to the
right.
international tension. She says toughness abroad reduces the
chance of war.
Margaret Thatcher has significantly changed Great Britain.
That she has been re-elected three times shows that a great many
British people share her conservative ideology. Political observers
have wondered if her electoral success reflects a move to the right in
Britain or if she moved the people to the right with her.
CHAPTER 8: Modern Ideologies
Recall
1. Why is Margeret Thatcher known as the Iron
Lady?
2. What events in Britain led to voters becoming
disillusioned with the socialist policies of the
Labour Party?
3. How did Thatcher reduce the government's
involvement in British society?
4. In what ways are Thatcher's actions in
Northern Ireland and in the Falklands similar?

5. Why did Thatcher support placing nuclear
weapons in Europe and oppose economic
sanctions against South Africa?
6. Which groups in Britain are most opposed to
Thatcher's policies? Why?
116	UNIT 3: Ideologies
Consider
1. Give evidence that shows
policies are consistent with
ideology.
2. Pretend you are a British s
report summarizing your opi
Thatcher's policies. Give r
opinions.
3. Both Britain and Canada 1
governments throughout m
Which policies of the Muln
in the 1980s were similar to
Thatcher government?
FR1;Democracy
Think of your politics class as a miniature society.
As a citizen of the society, do you help determine
how it should be organized? Did you establish the
rules? Can you change the rules? Are the wishes of
the majority reflected in what you do each day? Did
you choose the leader and can you choose a new
leader? Your class is based on democratic principles
if you answered yes to these questions.
Democracy is controversial. People disagree
about what democracy is and what criteria a
government must meet to be considered democratic.
For example, throughout the 1980s, Western
political scientists considered the Libyan government
to be authoritarian. But Libyan leader
Moammar Qaddafi stated that, because of People's
Congresses and other ways that Libyan citizens
exert political power, his government was the most
democratic in the world.
People disagree about democracy for two
reasons. First, like the ideologies on which they are
based, political systems are not static. Democracy
has adapted to meet the challenges of changing
circumstances and new cultures.
Second, all governments claim that they meet
the needs of their citizens. In 1951, the United
Nations stated that democracy was, the political
system best suited to meet human needs. Because
of democracy's growing popularity and credibility,
many governments with very different political
structures and styles claim to be democratic.
This controversy creates difficulty for anyone
trying to define democracy. This chapter will use a
modem. Western definition that should be challenged
by those who believe other definitions are
more valid. Democracy is a political system based
on a rule of law in which the majority of citizens
help make political decisions and choose their
political leaders. In a democracy, political power
lies ultimately with the people, not with the
political leaders. The word democracy, after all,
derives from the Greek words demos meaning
people and kratos meaning rule.
We can use this definition to measure the
degree to which governments are democratic. It
will also allow us to understand more clearly how
democracy evolved. This chapter will help you to
understand the nature and limitations of democracy
in Canada and whether or not your class is
democratic. ;
The Evolution of Democracy
Athens
Democracy began in Athens, Greece, over 2500
years ago. Athens was one of a number of
city-states around the Mediterranean Sea. They
were ruled by dictators. The people belonged to
different ethnic groups called tribes. Competition
between the city-states and between the various
tribes within them was constant.
In Athens, the power of the tribes and of the
authoritarian leaders slowly declined. In 621 BE, an
Athenian named Draco codified Athenian law.
That is, he wrote down and organized the laws so
that everyone could understand them. New laws
restricted the power of judges and the other
CHAPTER 9: Democracy 117
political leaders. They had previously been able to
create or change laws to fit their needs. In 594 BE,
Solon, another politician, rewrote many laws to
give citizens more rights. More people were
allowed to own land. Citizens began to serve as
jurors and as members of an assembly that passed
and changed laws.
In 461 BE, Pericles became the leader of
Athens. In a famous speech to honour Athenian
war dead, the Funeral Oration, he outlined more
democratic principles that he later put into practice.
After being found guilty of corrupting youth, political ph
poisonous hemlock solution while his students weep. Altl
innocent, he agreed to die, arguing that all people must sui
authority of the legally established court.
He opened the political system to m
paying government officials. Even
could now become government
assembly was given the power )
military. Political leaders whom tl
citizens no longer supported coul
from office.
Athenian democracy was a dil
Citizens met about forty times a ye;
vote on new laws. Direct democra
because the number of citizens v
ilosopher Socrates drinks a
iough he believed himself
sport the rule of law and the
Fig. 9.1 Direct Democracy
People
In a direct democracy, citizens discuss ideas and vote
to create new laws,
Furthermore, citizens were interested, well
informed and had similar backgrounds ani
political beliefs. However, citizenship was ver
limited. Only male property owners were allowci
to be citizens. Neither women nor slaves had right
of citizenship.
Athenian democracy was destroyed arouni
400 BE by external and civil wars. Many demo
cratic ideas, however, survived and became th
core of modern democracy.
Rome
When Rome rose to prominence around 300 BE, adopted many democratic principles. Roman lai was codified and only the assembly could chang
the laws. The Roman assembly did not comprise a
Fig. 9.2 Representative Democracy
Elections
People 1111 '--------------------------------»- Repi
In a representative democracy, people elect
representatives to discuss ideas and create new laws
on their behalf.
Lows
citizens, as had been the case in Athens. Instead,
d citizens elected people to represent them. This
y form of democracy is called representative democd
racy. It is more viable in a large, complex society
s than direct democracy. In 27 BC/ after nearly a
century of civil war, Rome entered a long period of
d authoritarian rule.
i- The Roman emperor Justinian reestablished
e the Roman system of law around 560 AD. He
rewrote Roman law into what became known as
the Justinian Code. It stated that the purpose of law
was to organize society and to ensure humane
treatment for all. The code established an imporit
tant tenet of democracy: that everyone is equal n according to the law, regardless of his or her wealth
e or political position. Everyone must obey and is
11 protected by the law.
Decisions
resentcrtives -------------- » Lows
CHAPTER 9: Democracy 119
Iceland has played an
important role in the evolution
of democracy. In
August 1989, Iceland's President
Vigdis Rnnbogadotir
visited Gimli, Manitoba,
and saw the descendents
of the Icelanders who
founded the community
over 100 years ago.
.1
Iceland
For many years after the fall of Rome, authoritarian e
rulers controlled much of the world. Democracy r
reappeared in Iceland around 930 AD. The chiefs <
of Iceland's various tribes began to meet once a ' year to discuss trade, laws, and other matters of
mutual interest. The chiefs voted on laws that all
tribes were expected to obey. The meetings
became known as the Allhing. The Althing's duties
were similar to a modem parliament.
England
Democracy began to develop in England in the
thirteenth century. In 1215, King John tried to
impose higher taxes on England's landowning
aristocracy. They threatened to revolt. Realizing he
could not win a war. King John reluctantly agreed
5 sign the Magna Charta
stablished laws on person
oyal power. It was later
:entral to modem democra
obey the law; all people
under the law; everyone ha
and only an elected asserr
people has the right to im
For over tour hundred
{ought parliament over I1
Magna Charta. In 1688, ;
settled the struggle and 1
was established as supr
restricted from taking
without parliament's cor
passed the English Bill of
parliamentary powers
citizenship.
Fig. 9.1 Direct Democracy
People
In a direct democracy, citizens discuss ideas and vote
to create new laws.
Furthermore, citizens were interested, well
informed and had similar backgrounds am
political beliefs. However, citizenship was ver
limited. Only male property owners were allowci
to be citizens. Neither women nor slaves had right
of citizenship.
Athenian democracy was destroyed arouni
400 BE by external and civil wars. Many demo
cratic ideas, however, survived and became th
core of modern democracy.
Rome
When Rome rose to prominence around 300 BE,:
adopted many democratic principles. Roman lav was codified and only the assembly could chang
the laws. The Roman assembly did not comprise a
Fig. 9.2 Representative Democracy
Elections
| People --------------------------------------»- Repi
In a representative democracy, people elect
representatives to discuss Ideas and create new laws
on their behalf.
Lows
citizens, as had been the case in Athens. Instead,
d citizens elected people to represent them. This y form of democracy is called representative democd
racy. It is more viable in a large, complex society
s than direct democracy. In 27 BE, after nearly a
century of civil war, Rome entered a long period of
d authoritarian rule.
i- The Roman emperor Justinian reestablished
e the Roman system of law around 560 AD. He
rewrote Roman law into what became known as
the Justinian Code. It stated that the purpose of law
was to organize society and to ensure humane
treatment for all. The code established an imporit
tant tenet of democracy: that everyone is equal
v according to the law, regardless of his or her wealth
e or political position. Everyone must obey and is
11 protected by the law.
Decisions
resentatives ----------------------------» Lows
CHAPTER 9: Democracy 119
Iceland has played an
important role in the evolution
of democracy. In
August 1989, Iceland's President
Vigdis Finnbogadotir
visited Gimli, Manitoba,
and saw the descendents
of the Icelanders who
founded the community
over 100 years ago.
Iceland
For many years after the fall of Rome, authoritarian
rulers controlled much of the world. Democracy
reappeared in Iceland around 930 AD. The chiefs
of Iceland's various tribes began to meet once a
year to discuss trade, laws, and other matters of
mutual interest. The chiefs voted on laws that all
tribes were expected to obey. The meetings
became known as the Althing. The Althing's duties
were similar to a modem parliament.
England
Democracy began to develop in England in the
thirteenth century. In 1215, King John tried to
impose higher taxes on England's landowning
aristocracy. They threatened to revolt. Realizing he
could not win a war. King John reluctantly agreed
to sign the Magna Charta. T
established laws on personal 1
royal power. It was later use
central to modem democracy:
obey the law; all people are
under the law; everyone has a r
and only an elected assembly
people has the right to impose
For over four hundred yea
fought parliament over the ir
Magna Charta. In 1688, the (
settled the struggle and the p
was established as supreme.
restricted from taking mo'
without parliament's consent.
passed the English Bill of Right
parliamentary powers and
citizenship.
The United States
Beginning in the mid-sixteenth century, Europeans
began to move in large numbers to North America.
Immigrants from Britain brought democratic ideas
with them. By the 1760s, elected assemblies had
been established in all thirteen colonies that later
became the United States. When the British parliament
tried to impose new taxes on the colonies,
colonists adopted the slogan, "No taxation without
representation." If the colonies were not allowed to
send representatives to parliament, they would not
pay taxes. In 1776, the colonies declared their
independence in a fight for democracy. Thomas
Jefferson, a leader from Virginia, wrote the
Declaration of Independence that justified the
colonies' actions.
The Declaration of Independence was based
directly on the ideas of Locke and liberalism. It and
the American constitution incorporated all of the
democratic principles that had emerged since
democracy began. The writers of the American
constitution believed that separating the executive
and legislative branches and creating a system of
checks and balances resulted in a system of
government that was more democratic than British
parliamentary democracy.

Fig. 9.3 Preamble to the American Declaration of
Independence
\	\
i
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men
are created equal, that they are endowed by their
Creator with certain unallenable rights, that
among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of
Happiness. ~ That to secure these rights. Governments
are Instituted among Men, deriving their just
powers from the consent of the governed.
American democracy, however, was not
complete. Slavery was permitted. Women had few
civil rights and could not vote or hold public office.
A property requirement was attached to the
franchise. As the political party system developed,
only men with wealthy friends and influential
contacts were elected to senior government
positions.
France
Many French people were inspired by stories of
American democracy. French citizens demanded
more democratic rights. In 1789, a revolution based
on the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity
overthrew the authoritarian French monarchy. Liberty means that all citizens are free from
authoritarian rule and economic restrictions. Laws
should protect free speech, free assembly, religious
freedom, and other civil rights. Equality means
that everyone is equal under the law. Fraternity means that citizens should work together to make a
better society and a better world. The revolution
could not sustain its ideals and France soon
returned to authoritarian rule. Not until 1848 were
democratic principles again accepted.
Democracy Spreads
The French and American revolutions inspired
many other countries to experiment with democracy.
A number of colonies demanded their
independence to establish democratic self-rule.
Many Central and South American colonies won
their freedom from Portugal and Spain and
established democratic governments. Britain
began granting independence to its colonies in the
mid-1800s. Canada gained a degree of independence
in 1867 and created a democratic government
based on the American and British examples.
CHAPTER 9: Democracy 121
The storming of the Bastille
-- the beginning of the
French Revolution in 1789.
Some historians have suggested
that to understand the impact of the French
Revolution on the eighteenth
century, imagine the
impact if the American
government were overthrown
by a popular American
communist revolution.
By the mid-twentieth century, democratic governments
existed on every continent.
Principles of Modern
Democracy
The belief that people are able to rule themselves is
the core of democracy. Those who believe in
democracy are confident about human nature.
They conclude that government in the hands of the
people will succeed both in meeting individual
needs and in promoting the general good of all.
It is important not to confuse democracy with
a particular ideology. The democratic principles
discussed below are consistent with liberalism,
conservatism, and socialism.
democracy can be present ir
various structures, styles, and
Rule of Law
The rule of law means that if the government, govemme
citizens. Everyone in the coui
penalty for breaking the law
from country to country
circumstances arise. But bee
under the law, the law is res
acknowledged.
In most countries, the
edges the importance of
example, the preamble to t
Rights and Freedoms statt
founded upon principles that recognize the supremacy
of God and the rule of law...".
A democratic system is in trouble when the
government ignores the rule of law. In 1982, for
example, American President Ronald Reagan
announced that the government of Nicaragua
was a communist dictatorship and should be
overthrown. Although Congress initially supported
his policy, it later banned the financing of
American-trained anti-government troops. Some
non-elected members of the government ignored
the law and continued supporting the troops. In
1986, the press discovered the secret and illegal
activities. Those involved stated that they believed
that it was sometimes necessary to ignore the law
for the good of the country. Luckily for American
democracy, most Americans disagreed with
them.
Independent Courts
An essential element or democracy is a court
system that is not under government control. It
protects the rule of law. Governments are not
interested in most court cases. Some cases,
however, involve spies, government officials
accused of wrongdoing, or a challenge to an
important law. These cases could threaten a
government's power or prestige. In a democracy,
a government cannot influence the outcome of
any trial. It must allow the judge to decide the
case according to the law and the circumstances.
Justice David McDonald
leads fellow commissioners
to a 1978 Royal Commission
hearing investigating
wrongdoing by the RCMP.
Royal Commissions are one
way in which it is ensured
that no one or no official
body in Canada is above the law.
CHAPTER 9: Democracy
Judges must never consider the political consequences
of their actions.
In a democracy, the executive and legislature
depend on the judiciary to judge the legality of
laws. If the judiciary decides that laws are illegal or
unconstitutional, it overturns them. An independent
judiciary restricts the power of government
and protects the rule of law.
In January 1988, the Supreme Court of Canada
overturned the existing abortion law, ruling that it
was unconstitutional. As a result, the government
was forced to reconsider the issue and create a new
policy consistent with the wishes of the majority of
Canadians and the constitution. In this case, Canada's independent court system protected the
rule of law and the power of the people.
Freedom of Expression
Freedom of expression means that citizens are able
to speak or write about whatever they want without
fear of punishment. Freedom of expression means
that citizens are able to criticize the government.
However, it also means that citizens can express
any ideas that they wish through newspaper or
magazine articles, books, movies, plays, songs,
paintings, sculptures, and more.
Some restrictions on freedom of expression
exist in all democracies. In Great Britain, for
instance, slander and libel laws protect people
from being lied about in public. Hate literature
laws protect minority groups from lies told about
them. Obscenity laws can stop the distribution of
material that the majority of citizens considers
morally unacceptable.
An important part of freedom of expression is
free access to public information. People need to
know what the government is doing in order to
comment on it. The British government recognized
the importance of free access to information when,
in 1803, it allowed the Luke Hansard printing
company to publish all that was said in the House
of Commons. House of Commons proceedings are
124	UNIT 3: Ideologies
now broadcast live on radio in B
they appear on television. Furthe
the Freedom of Information Act
examine most government doci
Most citizens acknowledge
need to keep some informatii
espionage activities. A demoo
state secrets as long as th
knowledge is relatively small.
disagree with the media and <
what information should be li
Freedom of the Press
Freedom of the press is tied
expression. The press inch modem society, the press hz part of democracy. It is of source of information ab
In a democracy, the pre? informed about political an
The government must not r
particular news stories e
ment.
Democracy is threate
seeks to control what is i
1985, for example, Amer
small island of Grenada < Grenada's neighbours if government. American I
banned the press fron
invasion. Only military c
action. Many Americar
the media in this way
principle of democracy
Censorship does n
effective. In Mexico, fc
dent newspapers exist.
overtly censor the new;
quietly controls the n(
monopoly on newsp:
government advertisir
newspapers' revenue
threatens to print a story that the government does
not like, the government withdraws its advertising
or cuts off the supply of newsprint and the paper
goes out of business. This is not freedom of the
press and it is not democratic.
Free Elections
Citizens of a democracy are free to choose their
leaders, usually through elections. Four conditions
must be met for elections to be truly free. First,
voters must have a real choice of candidates. In
Vietnam, some elections are held with only one
candidate. Because the voters have no real choice,
the Vietnamese elections are not democratic.
Second, candidates or parties running for
election must not use force or fear to influence
voting. The 1988 Jamaican election saw gunfights
in the streets, voters beaten up at polling booths,
and others threatened with injury if they did not
vote for one party. The results from such an
election cannot be considered to express the real
views of the citizens.
Third, suffrage must be universal. That is, all
citizens over a certain age must be allowed to vote.
Women were not allowed to vote in federal
elections in Canada until 1918. Before then,
Canadian elections were not truly democratic.
Finally, elections must be run honestly. In
1979, Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos
appeared to win the presidential election. The
world soon learned that the ballot boxes had been
'stuffed' with Marcos ballots. Moreover, thousands
of votes for his opponent were either not counted
Liberal Member of Parliament
Sheila Copps addresses
the House of Commons.
Since gaining the
right to vote in 1918, Canadian
women have played
an increasingly significant
role in political decisions.
CHAPTER 9: Democracy 125
allowed to vote and all governm
white. South Africa's political
represent the whole population an
are not democratic.
Political institutions must b
the citizens. That is, the voting pu
to influence what their representa'
they must be able to remove froir
no longer represent their view
States, senators are elected ev
senators want to be re-electe
responsive to the opinions of th
do not need to please the presi
government official. They are r
the electorate.
Political bodies can be '
responsible but if they have no'
they are still not democratic
village elects a council. The co
villagers and is responsible on
government officials regularl
and listen to their concerns. H
ment officials can choose (
council complaints or ideas.
are representative and respor
is not a true democracy.
Respect for Minority Ric
In 1831, Alexis de Tocquev:
and writer, visited the Uniti
American democracy but'
called the tyranny of the rr
concerned that a majority
their views, morality, and
The majority would rob th
choice and freedom. As d(
true democracy, the rights
be recognized and protec
The American civil
late 1950s and 1960s emp
minority rights in a de
King persuaded millions of black Americans
to protest non-violently the discrimination that
robbed them of their rights. As a result of the
protests, the federal government passed a number
of laws that guaranteed the protection of civil rights
in America. King said that his movement was not
only about civil rights but about justice and
democracy.
Summary
Democracy is controversial. It is a political system
based on the rule of law in which the majority of
citizens participate in political decision making and
Looking Closer
Summarize
1. Why do people disagree about how to define
democracy?
2. Describe the development of democracy in
ancient Athens.
3. What was the Justinian code? How did it affect
democracy's development?
4. Summarize the principles of the Magna
Charta.
5. What is meant by equality, liberty, and
fraternity? Why are they important ideals in
the development of democracy?
6. Summarize the seven principles of modern
western democracy.
in choosing their political leaders. Democracy
began in Athens in the seventh century BE but
democratic ideas have evolved and been adapted to
circumstances in many other societies.
Democracy will continue to change. Some
governments that do not respect its principles will
still claim to be democratic. Other governments
will be democratic in varying degrees. Perhaps no
government will ever adhere to all democratic
principles.
Democracy will always have its critics. Former
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill addressed
the critics and recognized democracy's
strengths and weaknesses when he said, "Democracy
is the worst form of government in the
world--except for all the other forms."
Organize
1. Copy and complete the chart below that compares
Athenian and American democracy.
Athenian American
Date of origin
Founders
Type of democracy
: Important democratic
; principles
, Restrictions oadeggggac^^,^^
CHAPTER 9: Democracy 127
Analyse ,.70 per cent of
, to^^-ffS^^ ";;- 31-
Canadian, wanted W"^ ^ year, the ^^S^^^^^
r^ "M pounds naiority of
Explain your M'5''"", ise in gr°"P5..
Co^e^S^onthe^n
Reorganae voul scn
. -^ of democracy. W11
An important asped^
^^i^^^
^r^%s
ff"^^^
elections.
Spotlight: Jeanne Sauve (1922- )
On a cool evening in May 1984, the nation's eyes were on Jeanne
Sauve. Earlier that day, she had slipped and twisted her ankle. But
she ignored the pain because she had just been officially sworn in
as Canada's twenty-third Governor General. As Governor General,
Sauve represented the traditions and history of Canada's parliamentary
democracy and constitutional monarchy.
Jeanne Benoit was born in Prud'homme, Saskatchewan, but her
family moved to eastern Canada when she was quite young. She
excelled in school and became fluent in English and French. She
graduated from the University pf Ottawa. In 1948, she married
Maurice Sauve, an economist and business manager. Maurice, an
active Liberal, was elected to the House of Commons in 1962 and
served in Lester Pearson's cabinet.
In the 1950s and 1960s, Jeanne Sauve became a distinguished
freelance radio and television journalist in Montreal. Her shows and
articles were popular and well-respected. At the same time, she
helped her husband in elections and became well-acquainted with
politics from the politician's perspective.
In 1972, Quebec Liberals persuaded Sauve to enter federal
politics. She was elected a Member of Parliament from Montreal.
Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau immediately appointed her to his
cabinet as minister of state for science and technology. She was only
the third woman cabinet minister in Canadian history and the first
from Quebec. She later served as minister of the environment and
minister of communications.
In 1980, Sauve was appointed Speaker of the House of
Commons. The Speaker acts as chairperson in the House. He or she
recognizes members who want to speak, maintains order, and
ensures that everyone obeys parliamentary rules. Sauve was the
first woman Speaker in Canadian history.
Sauve's term as Speaker was not easy. Because the Speaker
has to remain completely impartial, she was unable to mingle with
old friends and was rather lonely. She was also frustrated by not
being allowed to express her own opinions on important political
matters. Critics claimed that she did not fully understand House
rules and that she sometimes allowed MPs to become unruly. Others
complained that she failed to recognize backbenchers for weeks at
a time.
CHAPTER 9: Democracy	129
The best remembered incident of Sauve's term a
the "bell-ringing affair". At that time. Members weloud bells that House proceedings were about to b
rang until all available members were sitting in 1
March 1982, the opposition parties decided to protes
bill by refusing to answer the bells. The bells, whic
rang and rang and rang. Government officials pre
begin proceedings without opposition members. £
said that parliamentary rules and traditions must b<
all circumstances. The bells rang for fifteen days.
from all parties negotiated a return to the House ai
finally shut off. Sauve won the respect of MPs and
for her handling of the affair.
Sauve studied hard to become a better
procedures are complicated and confusing, but slAs her term progressed, MPs grew pleased with
Both the media and House members praised h(
completely restructured House of Commons proc<
recording of proceedings more efficient. She c
systems used for hiring, training, and supervif
working in the House.
In May 1984, Jeanne Sauve became Can
Governor General. Canadians were confiden
charm, and intelligence would allow her to carr
in a professional and dignified manner.
The Governor General is Canada's head of
or she represents the Queen. The Governor Ge
informed about political events in Canada. 0
include dissolving parliament and calling el
request of the prime minister. The Governor
speech from the throne which outlines the gove
beginning of each new parliamentary session
Office writes the speech. The Governor Gene
before they can become law.
Sauve organized and hosted official dinr
of government, heads of state, and ambassai
meetings with the prime minister. These i
Canada's political tradition. The prime mu
Governor General about political policie
consider his or her advice. Sauve also carr
functions that are an important part of the G<
She travelled extensively throughout Cana
^y^^^^r9 c—
^s^^^^^^^^^^
^ be remembe^d fo?lfae ^wamotG?eIal ^'d in 1990. She
Position. She w]l cdBo b. reSe^ f'^ 8h9 ^"a111 to ^
energy Ae showed as a MemS.eTof^l &e ^^"""ation and
and Speaker of the HousePe^POT,ll°meot• ° cablne1 mini'*",
reaembered for her courage as ttXT ""Portant, she will be
te Canada's democratic sSctoe w°man in ^ roles on»cial
After arriving on Parliament Hill to read the Speech from
the Throne, Governor General
Jeanne Sauve receives
the Guard of Honour.
CHAPTER 9: Democracy	131
Reca" ^ofSauvesU(epreparedhe,for
' ^^etpos^
, What were Sauve s cibme T \ Wh,.e^e^^^^d,d
formance as Speaker ( ,nce?
critics later ^^.nor General , List the duhes o( the W ^ g^^,
t WhydidSauvefrnd^PO^ ^ ^ ^
^n^0^ Genera1 occasona y
frustrating?
Consider ,
- ^tl=^ •
. ^^S
opposiuon p^-^ ^ ^
Governor
FR1;Authoritarianism
Imagine a school in which students have absolutely
no power. Rules and procedures are established
without considering their needs. No student
council represents student concerns. Students are
not allowed to criticize or even question the
school's rules or the actions of its teachers and
administrators. This school represents an authoritarian
model.
In an authoritarian state, political power is
held by an elite. The elite can be as large as a few
dozen people or as small as one person. It rules
according to what it thinks is best for the state.
Citizens have little or no part in the political
process.
Authoritarianism is the opposite of democracy.
For centuries, there were far more authoritarian
governments than democratic governments. Only
in the twentieth century has the number of
democratic governments grown to the point where
most governments are democratic, are striving to
become democratic, or claim to be democratic.
Three main factors determine whether an
authoritarian government is likely to develop in a
particular country. First, authoritarian governments
seem to arise in countries that are experiencing
a crisis or a period of mass frustration.
Often, communism or fascism has grown in
popularity along with the crisis. Many of their
beliefs are consistent with characteristics of
authoritarianism.
Second, authoritarian governments seem to
develop in countries whose political cultures accept
the principles of authoritarianism. If people are
used to a strict or militaristic political culture, they
might be more likely to accept, or at least not
violently reject, authoritarian rule.
Third, strong leaders, supported by the
military and business elite, often form authoritarian
governments. With this support, they are able
to alter the political culture of the country to suit
their needs.
It is naive to think that an authoritarian
government could never develop or take power in
Canada. It is also wrong to suppose that all
authoritarian leaders are cruel and self-serving or
that all people who live in an authoritarian state are
unhappy. Authoritarianism, like democracy, is
simply a way in which ideological beliefs find
expression in a society.
The Evolution of
Authoritarianism
Democracy began in Athens around 700 BE. All
other city-states that existed at that time were
authoritarian. In Egypt, for example, monarchs
called pharaohs held all political power. They and
the people were confident that their actions were
directed by the gods and goddesses. The pharaohs
cared little for the needs of the people. The people
were instruments to maintain and increase their
power.
Authoritarian governments remained dominant
for centuries. By the thirteenth century in
CHAPTER 10: Authoritarianism 133 --.^
The sphinx and the pyramids
were built with slave
labour. It is estimated that
thousands of workers died
constructing these monuments,
which were believed
to glorify the authoritarian
pharaohs.
most of Europe, people believed that the power of monarchs derived from the divine right of kings.
According to this idea. God gave monarchs the
power to rule and they were responsible only to
God. As a result, a monarch's power was
absolute.
In France, for example, Louis XIV became
king in 1643 at the age of five and ruled until his
death in 1715. Louis summed up the power of all
European monarchs when he said, "\ am the state."
In other words, his decisions about what was best
for France would always come to pass. Louis
believed that the millions of peasants under his
rule were like children who should obediently
follow the directions of their 'father'. They were
not allowed to question official decisions. No one,
for instance, was allowed to protest when taxes
were increased to build a palace at Versailles. They
were raised so high that they caused widespread
poverty and starvation.
UNIT 3: Ideologies
By the late eighteenth
democracy was becoming
cratic governments ruled G
the United States. Althougl being challenged, it remaii
of political organization in
the world.
The First World War
pean monarchies that we
ever, the mid-twentieth ci
of authoritarianism in mai countries. In the 1920s,
Mussolini took control ir
became the leader in the 1930s, Adolf Hitler gained
Francisco Franco won the
were authoritarian rulers.
Most twentieth-centu
ian rulers did not base the
right of kings. Instead, th<
FR1;the will of the people and to enjoy their support.
But their power and actions remained similar to the
earlier authoritarian rulers.
Although the Second World War destroyed
the authoritarian governments in Germany and
Italy, and weakened other authoritarian leaders
such as Hirohito in Japan, it did not end
authoritarianism. Authoritarian governments today
rule in Saudi Arabia, Zimbabwe, Chile, Iran,
Cuba, Libya, Vietnam, and elsewhere.
Characteristics of Modern
Authoritarianism
At the core of authoritarianism is the belief that
people are incapable or unwilling to rule themselves.
The political philosophies of Hobbes and
Plato support this belief. Both argue that people's
needs are best served when they are led by a small
elite. Because communism and fascism both
support leadership by an elite, either permanently
or temporarily, modem authoritarian governments
are often based on one of these ideologies. While
the type or extent of authoritarian governments can
vary, some characteristics are present in all.
The Supremacy of the State
The state holds all political power in an authoritarian
system. The purpose of citizens is to serve the
state. This fact does not mean that all authoritarian
leaders are cruel. It does mean that the leaders
determine the nature of the relationship between
the government and the governed. Authoritarian
rulers justify this system by arguing that the state
will create a society that meets the needs of the
people. By strictly obeying the rules of the state,
people's needs will be fulfilled. Obedience to the
state means that people's actions are controlled.
They are not free to question publicly government
policies or the actions of government officials. The
Nazi soldiers round up innocent
Jewish citizens in
Poland to deport them to
concentration camps. Hitler's
Nazi regime illustrates ^ ' an extreme example of
authoritarian rule.
CHAPTER 10: Authoritarianism 135
media, a watchdog of government in most democracies, is either owned or controlled by the
state.
Nazi Germany provides a good example of
how an authoritarian state can control people's
lives. In 1935, the Nuremberg Laws on Citizenship
and Race decreed that German Jews were no longer
German citizens. Jews could no longer enjoy or be
protected by the rights of German citizenship.
Marriages between Jews and other Germans were
prohibited. German Jews could no longer hold
certain jobs, employ non-Jews, or even fly the
German flag.
Collective Society
A collective society is one in which the government
tries to eliminate all important political,
social, and economic differences between social
groups. Individualism has no place in a collective
society. People are allowed to have individual
interests and tastes, but all public activities are
strictly controlled.
The authoritarian system that Josef Stalin
established in the Soviet Union in the 1930s was
ruthless. To modernize the country's economy,
Stalin established collective farms, owned by the
state. The state owned everything produced on the
farms and the farm workers were paid a wage. New
factories were built to meet Stalin's industrial
goals. Workers were uprooted and forced to move
to work in the factories. Cultural differences in
dress, food, religion, and so on were made illegal.
An authoritarian state does not need to control
all parts of society to create a collective society. In
many authoritarian states, privately owned companies
are free from direct control. Nonetheless, the
state controls the economy and dictates economic
goals. Companies are allowed to operate freely
only when their actions correspond to the government's
goals. Thus, some freedom of action is
possible in a collective society.
136	UNIT 3: Ideologies
Changing Leadership
Many authoritarian systems have no p
for changing the political leadership. Aut'
leaders rule until they die or are forced ft
Authoritarian leadership is sometimes pi
the established leader to a successor. 1 support authoritarianism argue that
leaders rather than electing them mea
best people become leaders. This pro
the problems of democratic elections. IF
unqualified people are sometimes el
more intelligent, experienced, and ca;
dates lose.
In China, the Politburo, the Chine
chooses the new leader. The new Ie
chosen after a power struggle during she wins the support of his or he Chinese citizens hear about the deds
it is made.
Many authoritarian leaders
through force or a coup d'etat. In a
small group ousts the political Ie
country and takes control of thi
Authoritarian rulers may also ;
during a revolution. Political re\ massive political change and ofte overthrow of a government.
Coups and revolutions do not
to authoritarianism. The Ameru
revolutions, for example, had irr
the evolution of democracy. Autf who have come to power throu
Fidel Castro in Cuba, Moammar
and the Ayatollah Khomeini in
Types of Authorif
Governments 1
Political scientists have tradi
methods to classify authoriti
First, they examine how many people make
national political decisions. In a dictatorship, all
political decisions are made by one person. In an
oligarchy, a small group of people make the
decisions. In a tyranny, many people are involved
in the political process but the rights of minority
groups are ignored.
Political scientists also classify authoritarian
governments according to the extent to which
the government controls the lives of its citizens.
Some governments display the characteristics of
authoritarianism to a greater degree or more
frequently than others.
St. Isaac's Cathedral in Leningrad. Three thousand serfs diei
gilding the domes with gold. Authorities knew the cause of
building was more important than the people.
The most useful way to classify authoritarian
governments is by combining these two
methods. By using this process, political scientists
have described four main types of authoritarian
governments.
Absolute Monarchy
An absolute monarchy is a form of government in
which the monarch holds all political power.
Absolute monarchies are often dictatorships.
Power is usually hereditary. The leader is chosen
based on his or her family rather than on talent or
leadership ability.
d of mercury poisoning while
death but believed that the
CHAPTER 10: Authori+arianism 137
lictator,"^^:^^
3wn. It a dlcta -u ctop {ollo^ng ^s^^^. ^
support^V^°lta^n8t^e^ successful re ^nes ruled '
Citizens of cou ^
^^^res^econsid treedoTnotexp^ oissent
to the dictator spov^
-,ot allowed, dictators r
Today{In^tetnberl9
For example, ^^essful co ^ Chile staged ^^
socialist preside^ ^
oBdals rep°_^ ^^ 1 suicide, but n^^
been assassinated ^ rights. It sought
^"ShTn^B"^ out against the ^ ^
United Nauon^d
lished reports h^^ ^^
^JT^5^6
) ^acSon^ their L' tomisedref"^.
lute dictav-
»-- ^"s'1""1'-^"; 3. =
=
(btd Fewg"^^. of the tho"""1' to'
'builton^^tTete/sW^.^^in '""
wh0^^^^^^^^ *; ^
^ ^edo^ ^1 y^ :
S^i»^ ^^ ^
^^S^^--------
S%^^W»^0^,
.^%;^^:^ the absolute ^^e country has no co
^^^^^^^ona1' ^^ec^-^ons.
deological One-P^
. ^ ideological °"
n ^n is considere
-omrnunisin.
- ^e rulers of ai
usually acquire P°^ d'etat. In some case
Once-P"^ sothatopp"^"^1
--.s'sk-^^ ;
high-ranking nul^ ofrmlit^ b
er. Sometimes a s^ ^^ ^pe of ^
share political P^ ^, ^ ^ a ^ dictatorship- ^^litary ^^ictator- ]
a?ffs^£-S;s?
s^a.S^sSff.s
S^ffSS^
Leaders of ideological one-party states claim
that their ideology will create an improved society,
but that they are the only ones qualified to interpret
the true meaning of the ideology. Consequently,
they conclude, only they should make political
decisions.
Furthermore, leaders of ideological one-party
states say that they have the right to use any means
necessary to achieve ideological goals. Sometimes
individuals in a society benefit from the leaders'
actions and sometimes they do not. The goals of
the ideology are not necessarily the same as the
immediate needs of the people, and the goals are
more important to the leaders. As a result of these
beliefs, citizens have few civil rights.
Ideological one-party systems are a product of
the twentieth century. The most important one is
the Soviet Union. Until 1917, the Soviet Union was
an absolute monarchy. A revolution in March 1917
ousted the czar and established a constitutional
monarchy. In October 1917, an even more widely
supported revolution led by Vladimir Lenin
overthrew that government. Lenin established
an ideological one-party system based on communism.
The Soviet Union has been an ideological
one-party state ever since.
Totalitarian Dictatorship
A totalitarian dictatorship is a government with
a leader who holds all political power and tries to
control not only what people do but also what they
think. Totalitarian leaders attain power through
revolutions or coup d'etats. Others are elected
democratically and then become totalitarian
dictators.
Once in power, all totalitarian leaders are
fascists. They believe that the state is the only
legitimate power in the country. They claim to be
the saviour of society. Their ideas and desires
become the policy of the state. To oppose the
leader becomes unpatriotic and treasonous. The
leader is thereby justified in destroying all political
and personal opposition.
Elections in 1989 bore witness
to the move away from
authori+arianism in the Soviet
Union. Populist candidate
Boris Yeltsin easily
defeated a Communist Party
rival in a Moscow riding.
Here a supporter holds a
sign that reads "Yeltsin is
the candidate of the
people."
CHAPTER 10: Authoritarianism 139
Citizens in a totalitarian dictatorship have no
civil rights. Any public opposition or even criticism
of the government or the leader can result in
imprisonment or death. Fear maintains social
control.
Few truly totalitarian states have existed,
although Mussolini in Italy, Stalin in the Soviet Union, and Hitler in Germany were all totalitarian
leaders. Hitler was appointed chancellor in 1933
and was soon granted dictatorial powers by the
German parliament. He then used legal methods to
destroy all opposition parties. By 1935, Nazi
officials sat on the boards of all corporations,
controlled all state and municipal governments, and were part of all social organizations. The media
had become an instrument of the state. Hitler's
presence was everywhere. He controlled the
actions and thoughts of most Germans. His was the
most total of all totalitarian governments.
Methods of Social Control in
an Authoritarian State
Maintaining order is important in any state. It
is especially important in authoritarian states
because of their rigid structures. Because they want
people to obey the law, authoritarian governments,
like all governments, try to win the support of the
people they govern. Some political scientists have
argued that authoritarian governments find it easy
to win popular support because most people like
living under authoritarian rule. They want to be
free from the responsibility of making political
decisions. Furthermore, they like to be told what to
do. If this theory is valid, it helps to explain why
some authoritarian governments win popular
support and maintain social order easily.
Beyond seeking popular support, authoritarian
leaders and states have developed other
methods to maintain order and obedience. All
140	UNIT 3: Ideologies
authoritarian governments use fi
of social control. Which methoc
and the severity with which it i'
on a number of factors: the ty^ government, the leader, the m< and the current political situati
Indoctrination
Indoctrination is a process in
taught that only one way of tl- things is desirable and that all
Education teaches people to an,
of view critically. Indoctrina
acceptance and obedience. .
Indoctrination is a part o
tion in all countries. But in mo'
education is predominant. In
indoctrination is predominant
gins in schools. Textbooks, C(
present only the political view The media also indoctrinat
newspapers, magazines, telev
other public expression en<
government's interpretation Propaganda is tied to the c< Governments use propag;
people's opinions. Posters, so]
and glorification of the Iea< propaganda.
Adolf Hitler used indoc
social order during his rule. "
was completely revamped. 1 teach Nazi beliefs were 1 Children and teenagers wer
the Nazi Youth Movement.
was to indoctrinate its memb
to report parents and teach
leader of the state in any w;
Hitler's most loyal support
methods are masterful exanment
can influence the th< millions of people.
Direction of Popular Discontent
No society runs smoothly all the time. Problems
can be as small as trains not running on time or as
large as food shortages or war. If the government
does not address the frustration that the problems
cause, widespread discontent can result. The
problems that cause popular discontent are nearly
always blamed on the government. In democratic
countries, this discontent usually results in the
government losing the next election. In authoritarian
states, it can result in disobedience, social
disorder, or possibly a revolution or coup.
To avoid these possibilities, authoritarian
leaders direct popular discontent away from the
government. They blame enemies within the state
or foreign enemies for all the country's problems.
The chosen enemy becomes a scapegoat. Citizens
are indoctrinated to believe that the government is
fighting on their side against the scapegoat.
In the early 1980s, many Libyans became
Youthful members of the
Nazi party parade in Belgium
in November of 1939.
Teenagers were Hitler's
most loyal and enthusiastic
supporters.
dissatisfied with Moammar Qadaffi's authoritarian
government. Qadaffi became even more
stridently anti-American than he had been. He
blamed the United States for Libya's problems and
for all the world's wrongs. He even supported acts
of terrorism against American citizens and armed
forces personnel. The state-controlled media called
the United States an evil power. Qadaffi's motives
for blaming the United States are complex. But the
more that Qadaffi promoted the United States as
the root of all difficulties, the more his popular
support grew among Libyans.
Controlled Participation
Most psychologists agree that people want some
control over their lives. People are upset if they
believe that they have absolutely no influence over
how they are governed. Authoritarian leaders
recognize that an upset group of people can lead to
social disorder. All authoritarian governments
CHAPTER 10: Authori+arianism 141
establish ways that people can participate in the
political process even though in reality they have
little or no influence.
The creation of powerless political bodies is
one method of allowing controlled participation. For example, the South African government
created township boards in black areas. Blacks
elect members to the boards which discuss local
problems and make suggestions to the federal
government. But the federal government is under
no obligation to act on or to accept any board
recommendations.
Sham elections are another method of controlled
participation. The government encourages
citizens to participate in the political process by
voting in an election. However, the elections are
meaningless because only the candidates that the
government wants to win are allowed to run. If
several candidates are running, all come from one
political party and share the same ideology.
Elections are also meaningless if the government
intimidates voters. In the 1970s, for example,
soldiers guarding the polling stations in Nicaragua
were told how each person voted. Those who voted
for opposition candidates were beaten, fired from
their jobs, or harassed by the police. People
continued to vote in elections but learned the
dangers of voting incorrectly.
Fear
The most blatant method of ensuring people's
obedience is to use fear. When people are afraid,
they will do things that they will not normally do.
Authoritarian leaders use this emotion to persuade
citizens to support governments and programs that
they might not otherwise support. The threat of
violence can create mass fear. Suppose that the
police and army arrest/ beat, or kill anyone who
commits even the smallest infraction. Soon, even
the presence of armed soldiers or police causes
fear.
An organization of secret police is tied to the
use of violence. The government ca
police to find and punish anyone wt
opposition. One of the most effective'
organizations was the Soviet Commil
Security or KGB under Josef Stalitj
rule, the KGB arrested millions of S
often for imaginary or minor criffl
fenced them to prison or internal exi
Fear of a KGB agent's knock on thej
middle of the night controlled oppo
Soviet citizens quiet. The KGB's pc
dramatically after Stalin's death in
Extra-governmental violence
maintain a state of mass fear. This ty
refers to groups that are not directB
government who beat up or am
government's critics or enemies, fl
assumption is difficult to prove, nr
assume that the government sif
groups. Extra-governmental violenc
government to create fear while estajB
as the people's ally against the viola
Extra-governmental violence
important method of public control
Throughout the 1980s, many Sail
the victims of random violence by ri
squads. The government claime
control over the squads and publi<
the violence. Observers noted, how
the government's opponents and
were the targets of the attacks. ManI
teachers, journalists, artists, and relij
The extra-governmental violencej
number of people who would publil
government and so helped to t
control and obedience.
Of the four methods of social
the easiest to implement but the
maintain. People will only live in
before they act to remove the sou
Any government that tries to co
through fear alone is bound to fai
THE WIZARD Of ID
By permission of Johnny Hart and NAS, Inc.
by Brant parker and Johnny hart
CHAPTER 10: Au+hori+arianism
^ed n- ^^
liefs. They ^^^eSo^ ^ost important of these ^
1988, Soviet Secreta^e y said, "The Sovietpeop^^ ^^
^condition^^^^^ to
programs, ...^Soviet Union an concem.bo^t^ ,^
influence, in aU co 3
^"^te"1^"^0^- influence and the p v
continue to grow.
^a
^^d'soTm-i
S^^nS? Canada and life m the U
Design and complete a c Sfcteristicsofauth^
Canadian governmen a
control social behaviour.
Af*
>bate the ^owmS
^ism is the most desi
Democracy seems to
industrialized, wealthy
ianism seems to be m
countries. Why do you
this difference imp
^swer- ^hly" succeed in a highly n
Summary
^^te^^^
nower. Authoritanan ^veww ^ state. Citizens ractinginthebes^"^
livinginanauthortanan^ ^
They are expected to serv ^y evolving.
Authoritarian sac ^ ^ ^ ^^arInthe
1980s, some states that na ^^cratic. ^%asthePhi^^^^^^ Other states that are
LookingCloser_
Summarize
1. What three factors often lead to the development
of an authoritarian government?
2. What is the divine right of kings?
3. Describe one way that twentieth-century
authoritarian rulers differ from Egyptian
pharaohs.
Summarize the three main characteristics of a
modem authoritarian state.
Define the following terms:
a. dictatorship
b. oligarchy
c. tyranny
Summarize the four main types of authoritarian
governments.
How did Adolf Hitler use indoctrination and
the direction of popular discontent to maintain
social control and obedience?
How do controlled participation and fear
maintain social control and obedience?
Organize
1. Examine the Soviet Union as an example of a
rapidly evolving authoritarian state. Divide
Spotlight: Vladimir Lenin (18701924)
Every day, hundreds of Soviet citizens line up outside a mausoleum
in Moscow's Red Square. They quietly and patiently wait for up to
three hours to pass by the embalmed body of the greatest hero in
their nation's history. Many communist and non-communist political
scientists consider him to be the most important person in the
twentieth century and the greatest revolutionary leader of all
time.
Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov was born to an upper-middle-class
family. He later took the name Lenin. His father was a teacher who
became a local school superintendent. Lenin was a gifted athlete
and graduated first in his high school class. He spoke six languages
fluently and could read twelve.
Two events turned this quiet youth into a dedicated revolutionary.
First, his father was threatened with mandatory retirement by the czar's government because he demanded educational reform.
The worry killed him. Second, Lenin's older brother was arrested
and hanged for trying to assassinate the czar. Lenin vowed to
change the system.
In 1891, Lenin passed the national law exams and won
first-class honours. He moved to Petrograd (later Leningrad) where
he spent most of his time reading Marx and other socialist and
revolutionary writers. He also met with local revolutionaries. In 1895,
the revolutionary group he had formed was arrested. Lenin was
jailed for fifteen months and then exiled to Siberia for three years.
Lenin was deported after his release from internal exile. He
moved often, living in Sweden, Belgium, Switzerland, and England.
In London, Lenin joined a radical newspaper called The Spark. He
wanted to use the paper to unite the revolutionary groups in Russia
into one force that could overthrow the czar and establish a socialist
state.
In 1902, Lenin wrote What Is to Be Done? He argued that a
workers' revolution would take place only if an organized party of
trained revolutionaries led the proletariat. That group must oversee
the temporary dictatorship of the proletariat that Marx predicted
would follow the revolution. A meeting in 1903 of the Russian
Social-Democratic Workers' Party resulted in a serious split. Lenin
led the majority who agree with his ideas. They were called the Bolsheviks. Those who disagreed with Lenin were called the
CHAPTER 10: Authori+arianism
in-crt Russia must b
M^e-^^S^^5^0 bourgeois-demo"""0 ..rfbered outside li
^ ^, ^^drr^^^^^^
^^SSff^^^^
Kie^^^S^ass deserto^ a, Le, B^sion army sute „ ^^itaHsn,. '
^^^^s
s^%£s1s;^s
'^^^--..^S
F^SSL"^^
^eS?^-^ gOTenment government.
Lenin faced trouble on many fronts. A civil war began when the
Mensheviks organized an army to overthrow Lenin. Lenin organized
the Red Army to fight them. In March 1918, Lenin withdrew Russia
from the First World War. In January 1919, armies from many
western countries, including Canada and the United States,
invaded Russia in support of the Mensheviks. Their governments
were worried by Lenin's communist ideology. They were also upset
that Lenin had left the war against Germany and had refused to pay the czar's huge debt, owed mainly to them. Many people predicted
Lenin's fall and the defeat of his communist, authoritarian
government.
By 1921, the civil war was over. Lenin had won despite the nearly total collapse of the economy. Lenin had given political
power to the industrial workers and land to the peasants. These
policies had kept them loyal to his government. With the war over,
Lenin assumed his enemies would exploit the economic crisis and
try to infiltrate his government and the Soviets in an attempt to defeat
him. To protect his government and the ideology that guided it,
Vladimir Lenin addresses a
crowd of workers and soldiers.
Paintings and statues
glorifying Lenin are everywhere
in the Soviet Union.
CHAPTER 10: Au+horitarianism
Lenin instituted a system of strict social control. H
authoritarian techniques, such as force and indoctrii
control the thoughts and actions of every citizen. He s(
protecting the state from counterrevolutionaries.
Lenin almost single-handedly wrote a new con
newly named Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. ]
New Economic Policy, which set up a centrally contr
system. The central government was in charge
economic decisions. Lenin also designed a new Ie
Lenin had been shot by a mentally ill woman :
could not remove the bullets because they lay too cl
cord. For the rest of his life, he lived in extreme pain.
continued to work. He wrote articles in whici disappointment about how his new system was ,v
wrote that he was worried that one of his deputies,
ruthless and was becoming too powerful. He did i
succeed him.
Lenin suffered a series of strokes in late 1923. In
died. In 1989, Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev s] of the Soviet Central Committee. He said that the u
reforms was to return the Soviet Union to the kil Lenin had envisioned. As he spoke, hundreds of S(
waiting patiently in a long line in Red Square.
Consider

What characteristics made Lenin an effective
leader?
Explain the importance of Lenin's arguments
in What Is to Be Done? What was the reaction of
other socialists to the book?
What was the significance of Bloody Sunday?
What
is the thesis of Imperialism: The Highest
Stage of Capitalism?
Why did the Mensheviks try to overthrow
Lenin? Why did many Western governments
try to overthrow Lenin?
List the reforms that Lenin instituted after the
civil war.
What type of authorit
Lenin form? Explain y< Lenin adopted authorit
control to combat a p
government and the s
governments justifie< means are necessary t
from perceived dange
country? Are democi tied in taking simi
circumstances? Expla
How does Lenin cont
in the Soviet Union?


UNIT 3: Ideologies
Case Study ^3--China
Over one billion people live in China. That means
that one out of every five people on earth is
Chinese. Its huge population has allowed it to
survive wars, plagues, and foreign invasions. It has
also made governing the country extremely
difficult.
Around 500 BE, the teachings of a political
and religious philosopher named Confucius began
to dominate Chinese culture. Confucius wrote that
people are basically good. He said that society and
individuals are best served when people accept
their place in society. People should be loyal to
their families and their rulers. Confucian thought is
still evident today in China.
For centuries, emperors ruled China. Their
influence was restricted mainly to the cities.
Ruthless warlords controlled the countryside
where the majority of people lived. The warlords
owned the land and in effect owned the peasants
who worked it. They fought each other for more
land and power. The peasants were poor, underfed, and oppressed.
In the seventeenth century, European governments
became interested in China. Missionaries
tried to convert peasants to Christianity. Merchants
stole tea, silver, and other goods. Thousands of
peasants were kidnapped and forced to move to
other parts of the country to work as slaves on
foreign-owned plantations. In the 1840s, the Ching
government of China fought a war with Britain to
try to stop English merchants from trading opium
for Chinese silver. Britain easily won the war and
the opium trade continued. In 1898, Japan invaded
and conquered China. China was divided into
zones controlled by Japan, Russia, Britain, France,
and Germany.
In 1900, the Chinese rose up against the hated
foreign rulers. But the Boxer Rebellion, as it was
called, failed miserably. The foreign occupying
powers increased the severity and harshness of
their rule. A sign in a park in Shanghai revealed the
conditions in China at the time. It read: "No dogs or
Chinese allowed." The Chinese word for foreigner
was "barbarian".
In 1911, a doctor named Sun Yat-sen led a
revolution against the foreign rulers. Students who
had studied abroad supported the revolution. They
appreciated and yearned for the liberalism they
had seen in Europe. Many business people and
ordinary citizens had grown tired of foreign control
and also supported Sun. Distracted by the
impending First World War, the European powers
and Japan were unable to stop the revolution.
Foreign domination was shaken off and Sun
eventually became the president of a new Chinese
republic.
Sun's policies promoted nationalism, democracy,
and a fair system of land distribution. The
revolution and the changes that followed, however, had little effect on the countryside where warlords
continued to rule. Most peasants did not even hear about the revolution. Without control of the
countryside. Sun's new government was doomed
to fail.
Chiang Kai-shek was the leader of Sun's
revolutionary army. He understood that control of
China meant controlling all of China. He took over
the government and began to fight the warlords.
Chiang and his Nationalist Party were joined in this
struggle by the recently formed Chinese Communist
Party. Together, they destroyed the warlords
and Chiang became the leader of China. Finally,
one government ruled the whole country. Once the
warlords were defeated, however, the Nationalists
and Communists turned against each other. They
began fighting in 1927. They united temporarily to
CASE STUDY #3 - China 149
ss.r-.-.ss;^"^,]! ss^S^S,
SS2?SS£-
beg^in the c"^^51^^^ for over twenty beg MaolivedaTnongtheP^ asants and
wears His supporters ^^er China was freed S to address their needs^^r ^ ^ ^
SSfS^^^
%^s'^
s^.-
^^'°s^
^ xnillion OE ^^o had tot<
raivvan. ^odob^^e establishme
China. He dec1^^^^
^te called the Feop^^^,
Mao was ^^^eso^
compete with ore^con ^^
own people. In ^-Forward. The
called the Great ^^ ^ntrol c
the complete S°^^ed tha
Chinese .^^ould allow C
econotnic cnang.^ acity in or
European industnalcJ^
^^^d^con^ledco^
^nt-o^d-nd; ^ ,
^t neco^unesto^
The government created thousands of small
factories and moved workers to run them. After
only a year, the Great Leap Forward had caused
massive dislocations and disruptions. The economy
was worse off than before. The Great Leap
Forward was declared a tragic failure. Mao
surrendered some of his political power and the
program was stopped.
By 1966, Mao had grown disturbed. He
thought that the government was abandoning the
Marxist-Leninist-Maoist ideology by introducing
capitalist-like ideas. He came out of semi-retirement
to lead the Cultural Revolution. The
Cultural Revolution's goal was to 'purify' China
by purging it of ideas that were not true to the
Maoist ideology. He organized the eleven million
member Red Guard, composed largely of young
people. They were inspired by a slim book of
Mao's quotations called The Little Red Book. Mao
urged all young people to rebel against all authority
figures, including government officials, parents,
police, and teachers, who were not true to the
communist ideal. Thousands of people, particularly
professionals and intellectuals, were sent to
the countryside to work on farms so that labour
could "cleanse their souls". The Cultural Revolution
quickly turned violent. During the vicious
internal struggle, political leaders vied for power.
The Cultural Revolution ended in 1969, but
the power struggle within the government continued.
Mao died in 1976. Jiang Qing, his widow, and
three others tried to retain power but they were
arrested and imprisoned. In 1977, a small, unassuming
man named Deng Xiaoping took control of
the government. Deng/ who had been a supporter
of Mao since the 1920s, had been imprisoned by
Mao's government during the Cultural Revolution
for advocating economic changes. Deng's ideas
and determination earned him the support of the
military and most government leaders. They
believed he was the person to help China recover
from the Cultural Revolution.
The New Democratic Revolution
Deng undertook a number of economic reforms
known collectively as the New Democratic Revolution.
At the heart of the revolution were the four
modernizations. Deng promised to modernize
China's agriculture, industry, technology, and
military.
Deng began with agriculture. He abolished
75 000 communes and returned control of the land
to the people. The government tried to improve
food distribution systems.
Next, Deng encouraged the development of
private enterprise. Managers were rewarded for
initiative and state-owned companies had to
become profitable. The government encouraged
citizens to sell surplus goods in non-government
markets and even allowed independently run
stores. It established special economic zones in
coastal areas that were run according to a private
enterprise system. The zones attracted a great deal
of foreign investment.
Most Chinese welcomed and supported
Deng's reforms. But many young people and
intellectuals were impatient with the pace of
change. They demanded political freedom to
accompany the growing economic freedom. They
argued that capitalism could not exist without
democracy. In 1986, they demonstrated and rioted
in seventeen cities to express their discontent.
Conservatives believed the riots proved that
the reforms were happening too quickly. They
were concerned that Deng was abandoning
Maoism's socialist and communist ideological
principles. Many members of the Chinese Communist
Party and officials in the huge government
bureaucracy believed that the changes threatened
their power. Even Deng began to question whether
or not China could have a largely capitalist
economy and a communist government.
In April 1988, Deng resigned as General
Secretary of the Politburo. Nonetheless, he
retained a great deal of political power. A moderate
CASE STUDY #3 - China 151
reformer named Zhao Ziyang replaced him. Zhao
justified Deng's reforms by explaining that China
was not in the last stage of socialism as Mao had
said. Rather, China was in the primary stage and
some capitalism was still necessary. China would
remain in the primary stage, Zhao said, until
around the year 2050. To progress through the
stage properly, China needed to become less
politically and economically centralized. It needed
to develop a system for selecting political leaders
and for democratically electing local government
officials. The speech satisfied both the conservatives
and the radicals, but only temporarily.
In May 1989, over 20 000 students began a
public protest in Beijing's massive Tiananmen
Square. They supported the new economic
changes but demanded political changes. They
wanted an end to government corruption, an end to
government control of the media, and more public
input into political decision making. Chants of
"We Want Democracy" echoed through the
square. By the end of May, the number of
Recall
1. Explain Confucianism's main ideas.
2. What did Chinese leaders try to accomplish in
the Boxer Rebellion?
3. What were the main goals of Sun Yatsen's
1911 revolution?
4. How did Mao Zedong adapt communism to
make it applicable to China?
5. What were the main goals of the Great Leap
Forward?
6. Who did the Red Guard fight in the Cultural
Revolution?
7. What four parts of Chinese society did Deng
want to modernize with the New Democratic
Revolution?
152	UNIT 3: Ideologies
demonstrators had swellec
Workers, teachers, and oti
protest.
For weeks, the govern
action to take against the
Xiaoping, who had never in
introduce western-style
supported the hardline p(
supported the students' cai
June 1989, army units attac
unarmed students and thei
and thousands more woun
mercilessly from the squa
The tanks in Tianann
clear how far the Chi
prepared to stretch the 1 ideology. They made it cl
would take whatever actio
address its problems witr
opinion. It is also clear thai often violent history wil
ways that no one can pre
8. What do the events
1989 suggest about ( government and ab
Chinese citizens?
Consider
1. What are some reasi
China, both today a
2. "China's huge popu
greatest blessing c Discuss.
3. Trace the evolutior
from Marx to Leni
Deng Xiaoping.
E
Iveryone is involved in international relations. We are involved
every time we watch a foreign movie or television program or listen to
music from another country. When we buy something made either
outside of Canada or by a company controlled by a foreign business,
international relations again has an impact on our lives.
International relations are clearly much more than the occasional
meeting of government leaders. International relations refers to all
interactions between the governments, economies, or citizens of two
or more countries.
Before the twentieth century, transportation and communications
technology restricted international relations. Travel was slow and
sometimes dangerous. Throughout most of the world, mail service was
unreliable, slow, or unavailable. While some people moved long
distances, most remained in their native countries. There was little
interaction with people of other nations.
Until the late 1800s, few companies conducted business outside
their own country. Governments owned or controlled most of those that
did. Most businesses seemed satisfied with the profits they earned
nationally or locally.
The dealings between governments before the twentieth century
were slow, formal, and often personal. Professional diplomats reported
news, coordinated spies, and conducted negotiations on behalf of their
leaders. Although disagreements and wars were common, the nature of
international relations actually helped reduce the number of conflicts
because leaders had time to react thoughtfully to events.
UNIT 4: International Relations
Technology always brings change. With ti
telephones and airplanes, international relatio
Government and business leaders had quicker ao
Television brought other countries and their off,
living room. Computers and satellites allowed for
communications. The amount and the complexit
between nations dramatically increased.
Older forms of international relations remain i
and increasingly complex 'global village'. Ami important roles in establishing and conductii
between countries. Ambassadors represent their
country. The Canadian ambassador to the United
promotes Canada's interests by speaking with Ai
and business leaders. The ambassador and other go
diplomats, sometimes called a diplomatic corps, between American and Canadian government lead
conduct negotiations.
However, most international relations now
through international government organization
non-government organizations. The next two ch<
these forms of international relations.
UNIT 4: International Relations
International Government
Organizations

The prime minister of Canada can get a message to
the president of the United States in a number of
ways. The Canadian government can send a
messenger to the president. The PM can hold a
news conference, sure that anything said will be
reported to the president. The Canadian ambassador
in Washington can meet with the president.
The PM can also simply call the president on the
telephone. All of these methods of communication
represent international relations.
Relationships between governments, however,
involve much more than communications
between leaders. In fact, dialogue between leaders
usually occurs only after lower-level officials have
either resolved all major difficulties or have
decided that they can be resolved only by the
leaders themselves. Most of the communications
between governments take place at this lower
level.
Governments created international organizations
to allow for this style of international
relations. International government organizations are groups of government representatives
that manage and promote communication between
governments. National governments initiate,
direct, and end their country's involvement in the organizations. There are many international government
organizations.
Canada has always supported international
government organizations and is involved in many
of them. This chapter will examine some of the
most important of them, focussing on those that
Canada belongs to or that most directly affect it.

The United Nations
In May 1945, while the Second World War was still
raging in the Pacific, representatives of fifty
governments met in San Francisco. They set up an
organization that the participants hoped would
make the world a better place after the war. Canada
was among the founding members.
The United Nations (UN) is the world's largest
international government organization. It has over
150 member nations. It employs thousands of
people around the world and has an annual budget
of many millions of dollars. Each member pays
dues according to its wealth, with the United
States paying far more than any other member.
The United States also provides the UN's
headquarters in New York City. The many
Fig. 11.1 Preamble to the Charter of the United
Nations
We, the people of the United Nations, determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge
of war ... to reaffirm fundamental basic human
rights, in the dignity and worth of the human
person, in the equal rights of men and women of
nations large and small, and to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations
arising from treaties and other sources of international
law can be maintained, and to promote
social progress and better standards of life In larger
freedom.. .have resolved to combine our efforts to
accomplish these aims.

CHAPTER 11: International Government Organizations
programs of the United Nations touch the lives of
nearly everyone.
The charter of the United Nations specifically
outlines the organization's goals. First, it is to
maintain peace by helping to solve disputes
between members. Second, it is to encourage
nations to respect international law and the needs
of other nations. Third, it urges nations to
cooperate in cultural, economic, and social programs.
The UN Declaration of Human Rights for
the first time recognized the human rights of all
people regardless of sex, age, language, race, ethnic
group, or any other consideration. Fourth, the UN
promises to be the centre for international
cooperation during the long process of attaining
these goals.
The founders did not intend the UN to be a
world government. Its purpose is to persuade
nations to accept and adhere to the rules of its
charter and condemn those that do not obey the
rules. To attain its goals, the United Nations is
divided into six parts. Each part has its own
agencies and responsibilities.
The General Assembly
All member nations are represented in the General
Assembly. Each country has one vote. The General
Assembly discusses any matter that is brought
before it. The issues range from ones that involve
many members, such as world pollution, to those
that are more limited, such as trade disputes
between two countries. The General Assembly
discusses an issue and then votes on recommendations.
Votes are passed by a simple majority. The
recommendations are sent to the Security Council
which may choose to act on them or simply ignore
them.
Critics of the General Assembly complain that
members spend too much time arguing over
procedures and money. They also criticize the
voting system. Large nations have always been
upset that all members have one vote, regardless of
156	UNIT 4: International Relations
their size. Furthermore, al
often vote as one block v\
States vote as another. Bl<
UN a pawn in the Soviet
The General Asseml
ever, as a forum for inl
National leaders use thi
make important policy .
they know that a UN s
around the world. In IS
General Secretary Mikh
UN to make a speech a
unilateral troop and weap
The Security Council
The Security Council h
are permanent: the Unite
China, France, and Britaii
countries when the UN
Assembly chooses the
members. They serve tv\
been on the council on
elected again in 1989.
The primary purpo
is to maintain peace. It c
take action to prevent
countries involved, it c;
stand between opposin
a ceasefire agreement.
peacekeeping force. Sc
are not directly involve
peacekeeping forces. I
forces were awarded
recognition of their ei
member of every peac
Each permanent
Council has the powel
them disagrees with a (
the decision. The Coi
action. The 'big five' a:
to balance the one cou
the General Assembly
Canadian armed forces personnel board aircraft on
peacekeepers in the Persian Gulf in 1988.
the veto is an example of international mistrust and
robs the organization of its effectiveness. The veto
is used more often than the UN's founders
anticipated.
The Economic and Security Council
The Economic and Security Council (ESC) is the
busiest part of the UN. It directly touches the lives
of most people in the world because it is
responsible for economic, social and humanitarian
issues. It builds schools, roads, canals, bridges,
hospitals, and more. It funds research projects to
fight disease, increase food production, clean up
the environment, and many other worthwhile
projects.
their way to serve as UN
The World Health Organization is an important
ESC agency. It works to eliminate world
hunger and preventable diseases, particularly in
the developing world. Perhaps the most widely
known ESC agency is the United Nations International
Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF).
Much of its funding comes from money that
children collect at Hallowe'en. UNICEF provides
food, medicine, shelter, and schools to millions of
people. It also helps victims of natural disasters.
The Secretariat
The Secretariat oversees the administration of the
UN. The amount of paperwork involved in coordinating hundreds of projects is overwhelm-
HAPTER 11: International Government Organizations	157
ing. It takes a staff of nearly five thousand stationed
at the UN headquarters and in many countries
around the world.
The Secretary General is the head of the
Secretariat. The General Assembly elects him or
her based on the advice of the Security Council.
The job is very important because the Secretary
General oversees the entire UN operation and is
considered its chief spokesperson. He or she
usually travels a great deal promoting the organization's
goals. The Secretary General can also
become directly involved in negotiations between
governments.
The Trusteeship Council
After the Second World War, a number of former
European colonies were struggling to become
independent nations. The Trusteeship Council was created to advise them. Its purpose was to
assist the colonies economically, militarily, and
socially in the transition to nationhood. While in
transition, clients are wards of the Trusteeship
Council.
The Trusteeship Council was extremely busy
in the years immediately following the Second
World War. It now has only one client. Micronesia
is a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean. With
Trusteeship Council assistance, it may soon be
strong enough to stand on its own.
The International Court
The International Court sits at The Hague, a city in
the Netherlands. All UN members are members of
the court. There are fifteen judges who are elected
by the General Assembly for nine-year terms. All
judges have extensive experience as judges in their
own countries.
The purpose of the court is to settle disputes
involving international law. According to the UN
charter, however, compliance with court decisions
is voluntary. Countries can decide not to send
representatives to appear before the court
result of these limitations, few cases fl substantial importance are brought b(
International Court. Instead, it settles mil
mostly concerning small fishing disputes;
of the sea.
The court's only real power is its;
sway world opinion. The internationa
usually report the court's decisions. This. can sometimes influence public opinion^ the political decisions of the g(i|
involved.
Assessment of the UN
Before the UN can help in any situation,
the governments involved must agree to
assistance. Sometimes they do not tn
interference or are unwilling to admit
need help. If they do not agree, the 1 nothing. This is one of the UN's main c can only be active when it is invite
sometimes least welcome where \ needed.
Although the UN has not achie
goals, it has not been a failure. Mat
been avoided. UN debates have he) ments and people better understand
ciate the views of others. Perhaps moj
millions of people are alive today who]
without UN assistance. Many peopa UN but few think it should be aboB
Respect increased for the U 1980s. Both the Soviet Union and the
paid millions of dollars in dues that
for years. Further, in 1988/ the Ur
the Soviet Union appealed to the L
stalemate of the Iran-Iraq war, to s< ers to end the war in Afghanistan, i other areas of tension in the world powers were finally allowing the UN|
it was intended to do rather thanfl
forum in which to attack each oth
Fig. 11.2 Members of the United Nations
The Commonwealth
In 1926, members of the British Empire met and
decided to establish a new relationship. The British
Empire ended and the Commonwealth was
created. The new arrangement was formally
agreed to in 1931. Forty-eight countries, representing
nearly one-quarter of the world's population,
are now Commonwealth members. Canada
has been a member from the beginning.
Many Commonwealth members recognize
the same monarch as their head of state. Others,
including Kenya, Tanzania, and India, are republics.
Nonetheless, they recognize the British
monarch as the head of the Commonwealth. All
Commonwealth members have equal status.
The goals of the Commonwealth have
changed over the years. The purposes originally
were to promote peace and economic trade
between members. In an important meeting in
1971, members broadened the goals. They emphasized
furthering world peace, racial equality, and
promoting the economic progress of developing
countries.
Commonwealth membership offers many
advantages. For example, travel and immigration
regulations are less strict between most Commonwealth
countries than they are between nonmembers.
Commonwealth members often speak
HAPTER 11: International Government Organizations
Fig. 11.3 Members of the Commonwealth
The Organization of
American States
The Organization of American States (OAS) was
formed in 1948. It comprises nearly all the nations
of North, South, and Central America. It was
originally created to support its members against
the perceived threat of communism. The OAS
began as, and to a large extent remains, an
organization dominated by the United States. Its
headquarters is within two blocks of the White
House in Washington, DC.
The OAS remains concerned with military
defence. It also promotes cooperation between
members in science, health, technology, and
environmental protection. In 1989, for instance, the
OAS discussed how to help Brazil solve its
economic problems in order to save its important
rain forests. The OAS tries to increase economic
trade between member countries by reducing trade
barriers such as tariffs and regulations.
When the OAS was created. Prime Minister
Mackenzie King decided that Canada should not
join. He wanted to retain a foreign policy on
Central and South American countries that was
independent of the United States. He was also
concerned that membership in the OAS could
jeopardize Canada's relationship with Commonwealth
countries. In 1972, Canada was granted
observer status at the OAS and became involved
-IAPTER 11: International Government Organizations
Fig. 11.4 Members of the Organization of American States
with many of the organization's committees. In 19S9, Canada became a full member of the OAS.
Prime Minister Brian Mulroney argued that OAS
membership would allow Canada to cooperate
more closely with Central and South American
governments in fighting drug trafficking and in
protecting the environment.
OAS members often disagree about policy. In
1982, the United States supported Britain's claim to
ownership of the Falkland Islands. All the other
OAS members supported Argentina's claim. The
organization remained split throughout the war.
The situation presented Canada with a problem.
The OAS supported Argentina. The Commonwealth
supported Britain. What was Canada to
do when one organization with which it was
162	UNIT 4: International Relations
0	2600 500C
affiliated disagreed with an
which it belonged? In the ei
the Commonwealth and su
This situation illustrates thi
ping affiliations. It is becon
the number and size of intf
organizations continues to ;
North Atlantic
Organization
The North Atlantic Treaty
was formed in 1949. It was
the growing fear of communism and Soviet
expansion in Western Europe after the Second
World War. Its members agreed that an attack on
one member would be considered an attack on all
members. Supporters of NATO believed that this
collective security arrangement would preserve
peace and protect its members by checking the
power of the Soviet Union. As well as the military
agreements, NATO members share scientific and
technological information.
The United States is the most powerful
member of NATO. Critics of Canada's involvement
in NATO say that the organization is an
instrument used by the United States to wage its
cold war against the Soviet Union. They also argue
that NATO membership means that Canada's
foreign policy is tied too closely to the United
States. For example, the Canadian government
justified its decision to allow the American cruise
missile to be tested in northern Alberta by saying
that it was part of Canada's NATO commitment.
Supporters of Canada's membership in NATO
argue that a military agreement with other nations
leads directly to involvement with them in other
ways. These ways often help Canada economically. Supporters also believe that Canada should do its
share to maintain peace in Europe and that NATO
membership is the best way to contribute.
NATO's adversary in Europe is the Warsaw
Pact. It was formed in 1955. Its goals are similar to
NATO's. In the late 1980s, the Soviet Union began
to remove many Soviet and Warsaw Pact troops
and weapons from Europe. Criticism of NATO
increased in Canada and Western Europe. Critics
argue that NATO has served its purpose and is no
longer necessary. NATO supporters warn that the
Warsaw Pact still has the capability to attack. They
contend that NATO troops and weapons must
The Berlin Wall was built in
1961 to stop East Germans
from moving to West Germany.
It became a symbol
of the cold war between
the American and Soviet
blocs. When the East German
government dismantled
the wall in 1989 and
began to allow citizens to
travel freely, many people
questioned the need for
NATO and the Warsaw
Pact.
-IAPTER 11: International Government Organizations
Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries
A country does not have to be a member of an
international government organization to be
directly affected by it. Some organizations are
powerful enough to affect every nation, regardless
of membership. This power has been clearly
demonstrated by the Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC).
For many years, the Middle East provided
almost all of the world's oil. Large American,
British, and French companies controlled oil
production. As Middle Eastern nations became
Fig. 11.6 Members of the Organization of Petroleum Expo
more independent, they began to realize that they
could increase their economic power by working
together. In 1960, they joined other oil-producing
countries in the developing world to form OPEC.
Oil-importing countries and the large oil companies
objected to the formation of the organization,
but members ignored demands for them to
disband. Instead, they agreed to regulate production
and marketing and thereby the price of oil.
In 1973, many OPEC members became angry
about American support of Israel. Partly to express
its disapproval, OPEC cut its oil production, which
created a world-wide shortage. Oil prices rose
quickly and dramatically. The shortage ended in
the mid-1970s but returned in 1979 when OPEC
again cut production and raised prices.
rting Counthes
HAPTER 11: International Government Organizations
During the shortage, thousands of Canadians
converted their oil furnaces to other sources of
energy. People built better insulated homes and
insulated older houses to preserve oil and save
money. People bought smaller, more fuel-efficient
automobiles. Thousands of Canadian auto workers
lost their jobs as car manufacturers scrambled to
adapt to the new market. These layoffs affected the
entire economy. Companies that sold goods to the
car companies also laid off workers. Some went
into bankruptcy. Many communities suffered
from the growing unemployment. Thousands
of people were unable to pay their mortgages
and lost their houses in the economic recession
that followed. The oil shortage and recession
of the 1970s reshaped the lifestyles of nearly all
Canadians.
European Economic
Community
The European Economic Community (EEC) was
formed in 1958. Its original goal was to bolster its
members' economic development. It sought to
regulate tariff and non-tariff barriers that restricted
trade between members. In 1985, the EEC established
new goals called the 1992 program. The
program is a slow process that will eliminate
borders and all economic and technical barriers
between members. All goods, services, workers,
and money will be able to travel freely within the
new European Community (EC). Citizens will be
free to work, live, or go to school in the EC country
they prefer.
The 1992 program will change Europe. The
European Community Council of Ministers will be
in charge. It is made up of representatives from
member states. It will make many of the political
and economic decisions that national governments
have made in the past. Planners predict the creation
166	UNIT 4: International Relations
w^-^dlteroneo^ ^
Members of the EC
L_______
Fig. 11.7 Members of the Euro
of over two million new jo
in GDP, and a 6 per cent d
No one knows how the cul
will be affected.
The EC 1992 prograi
Canada. On the one har
will benefit by having to '
laws in Europe. On the
become more self-suffici
may no longer need certa
Canadians will be affecte
companies make.
Summary
International relations c
between governments,
two or more countries. International government
organizations aid discussions and actions between
government representatives. National government
leaders control their country's involvement in
these organizations.
Canada is involved with the Commonwealth,
the OAS, NATO, and the United Nations. Canada
also belongs to the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD), the North
American Air Defence Treaty (NORAD), the
International Bank for Reconstruction and Devel-
Looking Closer
Summarize
1. Explain how the evolution of transportation
and communications technology has affected
international communications.
2. Define international government organization.

3. Summarize the purpose of each part of the
UN.
4. Summarize the main arguments of the UN's
critics and supporters.
5. What are some advantages of membership in
the Commonwealth?
6. Explain the problem of overlapping affiliations.

7. What is collective security?
8. Summarize the effects that OPEC's actions in
the 1970s had on Canada.
9. Explain the political, economic, and social
consequences of the European Economic
Community's 1992 program on both Europe
and Canada.
opment (World Bank), the Francophonie, and
others. Clearly, Canadian governments have
always believed that international government
organizations are important.
Like many other governments, the Canadian
government has always tried to use the organizations
to solve problems and reduce international
tensions. By working together with other
countries, the government hopes that wars can be
avoided and global problems can be addressed
effectively.
Organize
1. Develop a pro-con chart that outlines the
advantages and disadvantages of belonging to
international government organizations. Give
specific examples for each point you make.
2. Create and complete a comparison-analysis
organizer that shows the goals of each
international government organization described
in the chapter. What conclusions can
you reach by examining the various goals?
Analyse
1. Debate the following. Resolved: Canada
should withdraw from NATO.
2. Establish six groups in your class. Five groups
will represent the permanent members of the
Security Council. The sixth will be Canada.
Stage a mock Security Council meeting in
which you try to solve a current international
problem to the satisfaction of all parties.
-IAPTER 11: International Government Organizations	167
Spotlight: Lester Pearson (18971972)
In the summer of 1956, the world was teetering on the
world war. Alliances were breaking down. No one
stop the rush toward catastrophe. Talk oi a nuclea:
everywhere when, unexpectedly, the tension wa
person responsible for pulling the world back in disaster was Lester Pearson.
Pearson was born in Newtonbrook, Ontario Methodist minister. He was a quiet, studious boy hobby was playing and watching baseball. Att< school, Pearson earned a degree in history at. 1 Toronto and then furthered his education at Oxfo
To tight in the First World War, Pearson lied a
joined the army. He began as a stretcher bearer b lighter pilot. While in training, a commanding oil he needed a tougher sounding name to be a pil<
Mike. Pearson kept the nickname tor the rest of
After the war, Pearson taught history at the Un
He soon discovered that his salary did not mee
growing family. To make more money and pi
interest in world affairs, Pearson accepted a posi
formed External Affairs department in Ottawa
gence, hard work, and charm led to fast and freq
1935, he became Secretary to the Canadian V. in England. In 1941, he worked in the Can Washington and in 1945 became the Canadian
United States.
Pearson represented Canada at the foun
Nations in San Francisco. He was upset that the
anthem was played at the beginning of e
meeting. He warned that this symbolized the pc
domination of the new organization. He vowed t
and to keep the UN true to the charter that he a
had helped to write.
In 1946, Pearson entered politics. He 1 Member of Parliament for Algoma East in On
Louis St. Laurent soon appointed him Minister c was instrumental in negotiating Canada's n
and became chair of the council of NATO.
168	UNIT 4: International Relations
Canada's participation in the UN forces in the Korean War. In 1952,
he became president of the UN General Assembly.
In 1948, the United Nations had created the state of Israel. The
Arab nations in the Middle East vowed to destroy the new country. In
July 1956, Egypt's president Gamal Abdal Nassar nationalized the
Suez Canal and a number of British and French companies that
were essential to its operation. He refused to allow ships serving
Israel to use the canal. This action enraged Israel, France, and
Britain, as well as the many European countries that depended on
the canal for Middle Eastern oil shipments.
With French and British encouragement, Israel attacked Egypt.
France and Britain bombed Cairo, Egypt's capital, and British
paratroopers landed near the canal. Arab nations supported Egypt
and prepared to enter the war. The American government opposed
the French and British actions and demanded that they withdraw
their troops. The Soviet Union declared that it intended to enter the
fray to support Britain and France.
CHAPTER 11: International G
Lester Pearson addressing
the United Nations in 1955.
Pearson became world renowned
through his actions
during the Suez Crisis.

ovemment Organizations	169
1 -tVi accusations an
^y^^^
accusations, ^^eussing b°w ^"reseotalives I
^^t^^^
keeping ^J^p ^.hdrawd "''"^^d Sa>io.
'^r.^i.cssas
acceptedP^^eploYed. Ca^ ^^
^^rf^^^^^^ awarded
^^^•ssxss-
bilingual, ^^.a
mendation in 19by.
In 1965, Pearson signed a trade deal with the United States
called the Auto Pact. The Auto Pact ensured that cars and car parts
would be made in Canada. It created and helped protect thousands
of jobs in southern Ontario. Canada's greatest export became
automobile parts.
Pearson's government overhauled Canada's social programs
by creating new programs to distribute the nation's wealth more
equally. The Canada Pension Plan was one of the most important
new programs. It meant that all working people could expect at least
a small pension in retirement.
In April 1968, Lester Pearson retired. He spent his retirement
working on his memoirs and speaking and writing about world
peace. He also attended as many baseball games as possible in a
long-awaited reunion with what he called his first love.
Pearson died of cancer in Ottawa in December 1972.
Canadians mourned the death of someone who had changed their
country. Newspapers around the world reported his passing. They
remembered how, in the darkest days of the cold war, a quiet,
unassuming Canadian had saved the world from disaster.
Recall
1. List the experiences that prepared Pearson for
his role as ambassador to the United States.
2. What concerns did Pearson have when the UN
was founded?
3. What were Pearson's most important actions
as Minister of External Affairs?
4. a. Describe the events that led to the 1956
Suez Crisis.
b. How did Pearson solve the Suez Crisis?
5. List Pearson's accomplishments as prime
minister.
Consider
1. Canada has been involved in every UN
peacekeeping action. Research and write a
report on one peacekeeping mission.
2. Pearson was concerned about American
domination of Canada. Consider ways in
which the United States influences Canadian
politics, economics, and culture. Are you
concerned about the amount of American
influence in Canada? What can be done to
address your concerns?
CHAPTER 11: International Government Organizations
International Non-Go^ Organizations

Consider how students and teachers from your
school communicate with students and teachers
from other schools. Teachers write letters, speak
on the telephone, or meet. Students meet at joint
student council meetings or at athletic events.
Students and teachers also meet socially. None of
these activities involves the school administration
directly but all are interactions between the
schools.
International relations are similar to interactions
between student and teachers from different
schools. The media most often report the formal,
organized meetings between government and state
leaders when, in fact, most interactions between
countries are far less formal and are not between
government leaders.
Most international relations take place
through international non-government organizations. International non-government organizations
are groups to which people from two or more
countries belong. Their operations are beyond the
direct control of governments.
Not all international non-government organizations
are serious. Many are dedicated to innocent
interests, such as the seventy-nine international
Elvis Presley fan clubs. Others, like the International
Association of Nerds, try to be silly. The
International Banana Club was founded in 1974
and has 7000 members in 15 countries. It holds
picnics, parties, and seminars to promote humour
in a world it says has 'gone bananas'. These groups
serve many of the same fun
international non-govemme
Governments know ab
support international non-j
tions. However, some organi
strategies that embarrass pi Because international non
zations have members ar
countries, they can surviv governments harass or ban
Understanding intemat
organizations is important ii
national relations. This cha] ine some of the most p
non-government organizatii
Multinational
Multinational corporation;
have assets, markets, produc
two or more countries. 1 distinguish between domes
ests. Instead, they view tl
business unit and act aceoi corporations abide by the la
which they operate. In pla
activities, however, nationa
rather than impediments.


UNIT 4: Interno+ional Relations
The first private multinational corporations
developed in the late nineteenth century. Multinationals
were created through a process or vertical
growth. Standard Oil president John D. Rockefeller, for example, began by buying oil refineries. He
then bought oil wells and created marketing
networks to sell the oil. The purchases allowed him
to control all aspects of the oil business from
drilling at the bottom to sales at the top. Other
multinationals developed through horizontal growth. Andrew Carnegie, for example, built US
Steel by buying other steel companies until he had
few competitors. The largest multinationals grow
both vertically and horizontally.
In the twentieth century, many multinational
corporations have grown extremely large. We can
measure their size by comparing their annual sales
to the Gross Domestic Products (GDP) of various
countries. GDP is the value of all goods and
services produced solely within a country. Several
multinationals are wealthier than the vast majority
of the world's 265 countries.
Multinational corporations are very powerful
and can have positive effects. A multinational
corporation brings jobs, technology, and new skills
to any country in which it is located. Furthermore,
both the company and its workers pay taxes to local
and national governments. Governments use the
tax revenue to build schools, hospitals, and roads,
or to buy more weapons. As workers spend their
wages, local businesses grow. In turn, they pay
more taxes and more people benefit.
Because of the economic benefits, many
governments court multinationals openly. They
offer them free land, tax breaks, and sometimes
promise that workers will not unionize.
Multinationals can also exert alarming economic,
political, and cultural power. Their wealth
allows them to control a significant amount of finance capital. Finance capital is the money that a
country's banks have available to lend to companies,
people, and governments. Multinationals can
CHAPTi
Fig. 12.1 The Top Economic Powers -- 1986
Comparing Gross Sales to Gross Domestic Products
(In billions of US dollars)
1.
USA $4206
22. South Korea
91
2.
USSR
2062
23. Iran
80
3.
Japan
1233
24, Hungary
77
4.
West Germany
678
25. South Africa
77
'5.
United Kingdom
443
26. Belgium
76
6.
Italy
408
27. Denmark
72
7.
China
343
28. Venezuela
71
8.
Canada
335
29. Exxon
70
9.
Brazil
321
30. Austria
64
10.
Mexico
168
31. Ford
62
11.
Australia
166
32. Taiwan
60
12.
East Germany
166
33. France
57
13.
Czechoslovakia
160
34. Bulgaria
56
14.
Spain
160
35. Finland
54
15,
Poland
143
36. Thailand
53
16.
Yugoslavia
128
37. IBM
51
17,
Netherlands
124
38. Mobil Oil
45
18.
Saudi Arabia
116
39. General Electric
35
19.
General Motors
103
40. American

20.
Switzerland
96
Telegraph and
21.
Sweden
95
Telephone
34
control facilities for production, including mines, factories, and all places in which goods and services
are produced. They often control the means to
market finished products, in particular, the transportation
and communications industries. Finally,
multinational corporations can control the number
of jobs available, who has a job, wages, and
working conditions of employment.
The economic power of multinational corporations
has significantly eroded the ability of many
governments to regulate their economies. Governments
still control taxes, spending, and the money
:R 12: International Non-Government Organizations
supply. But if a multinational decides to withdraw
its investment or close its factories, a national
economy will be severely affected, regardless of
what the government does. The main concerns of a
multinational are the health of the international
economy and its own interests rather than the
well-being of one particular economy.
Many multinational corporations simply
ignore governments when their interests clash. In
the 1930s, for example^ Exxon had a number of
lucrative contracts with Nazi Germany. Exxon
maintained its ties with Hitler even after the
Second World War began. After the war, it sued
the American government for the damage that
B-52 bombers inflicted on one of its German
plants. Exxon won the case.
3tional corporation that has
Multinational corporations exert political
power through legal means. They form large,
well-financed interest groups in every nation.
These lobby groups pressure government leaders
to make decisions that help the company. Because
multinationals have such significant economic
power, groups are usually very influential.
Multinational corporations occasionally exert
political power illegally. In 1970, for example, the
International Telegram and Telegraph Corporation
(IT&T) became alarmed when the government
of Chile threatened to nationalize its operations.
IT&T worked with the American Central Intelligence
Agency to arm and train right-wing rebels.
The rebels eventually overthrew the elected
government. There are other cases, such as in
Guatemala in 1954, in which multinational corporations
have orchestrated or financed the overthrow
of governments they did not like.
Multinationals attempt to standardize culture.
Having workers in many countries build the same
products using the same methods reduces production
costs. Therefore, people are encouraged to
work, dress, and think the same, regardless of
cultural differences. People in various nations must
have similar tastes if they are to buy the same
products. Through advertising, multinationals try
to minimize the unique tastes of each culture to
manipulate people into wanting and buying the
same products. Multinationals sometimes alter
products to fit different cultures, but more often
they find it easier and more profitable to change
cultures to fit the products.
Multinational corporations have played an
important role in creating a global economy. In a
global economy, all national economies are interwoven
and interdependent. In 1971, the president
of IBM summed up the feelings of most multinational
corporation leaders when he said, "For
business purposes, the boundaries that separate
one nation from another are no more real than the
Equator."
CHAPTt
International Charities
An average of 88 per cent of Canadians donate
money to charities every year. Every nation has
people willing to help and persuade others to help
those less fortunate than themselves. They often
organize charities. An international charity has
directors, workers, and programs in two or more
countries. It can act with or without the support of
national governments. Through charities, people
can overlook national differences and act as one
body to deal with world problems.
The Red Cross, which began in 1864, is one of
the most successful international charities. Its
headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland, with
volunteer organizations in over 100 countries. The
Red Cross was formed to help nurse wounded
soldiers. It later began to provide aid through blood
collection drives, veteran assistance, disaster relief,
and safety education programs. Donations from
many people and organizations around the world
fund its operations.
World Vision is another important international
charity. World Vision raises money to
support long-term relief projects such as building
crop irrigation systems in northern Africa. It also
funds emergency relief for the victims of natural
disasters. Secondary school students collect money
for World Vision by gathering pledges for 30 Hour
Famines. These fasts raise both money and
awareness of the international problem of world
hunger.
Heroic Individuals
Individuals occasionally begin charitable projects
that attract international attention. They create
temporary international non-government charitable
organizations.
Terry Fox lost his right leg to cancer when he
was 19. In 1980, he decided to run across Canada to
:R 12: International Non-Government Organizations
raise money for cancer research. His Marathon of
Hope was cut tragically short in Thunder Bay,
Ontario, when he learned that the cancer had
spread to his lungs. He died shortly afterward. His
efforts earned international attention and raised
$14 million for cancer research.
In 1983, Steve Fonyo, another one-legged
Canadian, completed Fox's Marathon of Hope and
raised more money for cancer research. Then, from
1985 to 1987, Rick Hansen wheeled himself around
the world to raise money for spinal cord research.
In 1988 and 1989, Canadian marathon swimmer
Vicky Keith swam the Great Lakes, the English
Channel, and other large bodies of water to raise
money from donors around the world.
In 1984, Bob Geldof was the leader of a
somewhat successful British rock group called the
Boomtown Rats. One day, he saw a broadcast
about the famine in Ethiopia. He decided to do
something to help. He wrote a song called "Do
They Know It's Christmas?" and recorded it with
other British singers. Proceeds from the record
sales went to a newly created Ethiopian relief
fund. He called the project Band Aid.
In 1985/ Geldof wanted to attract even more
international attention and raise more money for
the cause. He organized an event called Live Aid,
two simultaneous rock concerts in Philadelphia
and London. Satellite hook-ups carried the telecast
to viewers in over one hundred countries and even allowed Soviet rock bands to participate. Viewers
donated money during the all-day telecast. Over
one billion people watched Live Aid. It raised $85
million. The money was used to buy food, trucks,
irrigation systems, farm equipment, and more.
Critics of temporary charities argue that they
take money from permanent organizations. Temporary
charities spend money setting up organizational
and administrative systems that established
charities already have. Critics worry that 'one shot'
events lead people to believe that quick solutions
are possible when long-term commitments are
176	UNIT 4: International Relations
needed. Supporters of individual effor^
single events can raise people's cc
about political or medical problems. T
people will donate more money a
established charities after the special
International Politico
Groups
International political action group
tions that pressure governments to)
laws and whose membership includ
two or more countries. Some intern;
action groups are formed to acco
goals and then disband once that j
At the turn of the century, for instai
groups fought to have the right to ^
women. When women won the vc
continued to fight for women's i
disbanded. Political action grou
long-term issues such as environn
human rights, drug abuse, and so <
organizations.
International political actio)
power by having as many men
countries as possible. Groups of
to attract attention to their goal
media attention will inspire
support the group's views and
ments to react. There are many
tional political action groups.
Greenpeace
In September 1971, a group <
from Vancouver aboard an old
perilous voyage in rough se
entered the waters off An"
Alaska. The American goven
carry out a nuclear test but was forced to postpone
it when the protesters refused to move. The
Canadians demanded that the test be cancelled
because of the environmental damage it would
cause. They also wanted to promote nuclear
disarmament. Newspapers from around the world
printed pictures of the daring crew smiling beneath
a large green sail emblazoned with the name
Greenpeace.
The American government cancelled the
Amchitka tests when thousands of letters from
many countries poured into Washington to express
support for Greenpeace. In 1972, the American
government bowed to international pressure and
created a permanent bird sanctuary on the former
test site. The decision gave the newly founded
Greenpeace its first victory.
CHAPT
Greenpeace has become a powerful international
body. It has offices in 17 countries and over
one million members, many of whom volunteer
part-time to promote Greenpeace's causes. Greenpeace
has publicized the dangers of overhunting
whales and seals, nuclear weapons testing, acid
rain, nuclear power, toxic waste disposal, and
many other environmental issues.
Greenpeace's critics say that its actions result
in lost jobs and money and that the organization is
unconcerned about local situations. Inuit representatives
argued that the seal hunt, which Greenpeace
had opposed, was essential to their culture. In
response, Greenpeace reviewed the issue and
stopped commenting publicly on the hunt.
In 1985, the French government wanted to
stop Greenpeace from protesting its testing of
A Greenpeace inflatable
raft pesters the USS Elsenhower to protest superpower
militarism and the
continuation of the nuclear
arms race.
ER 12: International Non-Government Organizations	177
nuclear weapons in the South Pacific. French
government agents attached underwater bombs to
the Greenpeace ship. The Rainbow Warrier, and
killed a photographer who was on board. There
was international public outrage.
Despite its critics and unorthodox methods, Greenpeace remains the most influential international
environmental protection group. Its actions
have led people from many nations to recognize
that the environment has no national borders.
Consequently, all people must work together to
protect it.
Amnesty International
At this moment, thousands of people are in prison
because of their political beliefs. In many countries,
Fig. 12.2 Torture in the 1980s
political prisoners are regularly
are raped, castrated, beaten,
shocks. In most cases, impriso
are government policy. In the 1' governments used or allowed
torture to maintain political co;
Amnesty International was end the imprisonment and torti
solely because of their political gates cases that it finds in the m< documents, or that the victims
conducts investigations regardli
or political system of the pr
country. It uses the United Nati
Human Rights to measure huma
Amnesty International now has
0	2500 5000 kill
members, most of whom are volunteers. Forty
nations have active chapters and people in 150
countries donate money to the organization.
After investigating a case. Amnesty publicizes
its findings through the international media.
Amnesty groups "adopt" a prisoner of conscience.
They use letter-writing campaigns to pressure the
government to release the prisoner or at least to
end the torture. Since its founding. Amnesty
International has acted in over 30 000 cases. Over
80 per cent have ended with the release of the
political prisoner.
While working to release prisoners, the
organization also helps their families. It has
developed a world-wide education and public
awareness program to make people more aware of
human rights. Amnesty International was awarded
the Nobel Peace Prize in 1977 and the United
Nations Human Rights Prize in 1978.
Governments that use torture are critical of
Amnesty International. They claim that the international
non-government organization is interfering
in their internal affairs. Volunteers are often
harassed, ignored, or not allowed to enter a
country. Many governments refuse to accept the
concept of human rights as well as refuse to be
investigated. Despite these frustrations and dangers,
Amnesty International volunteers continue to
believe that their cause is worth the effort.
Religion
The word religion derives from the Latin word religio, which means bond. A religion is a system of
beliefs about a deity or deities, the purpose of life,
and the ethical and moral standards that should
guide believers' lives. The major religions in the
world today are Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and Sikhism. Followers of
each religion live on every continent and in nearly
every country. Christianity has the most believers.
CHAPT
Religions, like other international non-government
organizations, bring people from various countries
together who share common interests and common
bonds.
All Moslems, for example, are expected to
travel to the holy city of Mecca at least once in their
lives. Every year, approximately two million
Moslems visit Mecca for fourteen days of prayer
and reflection. They are unified by their religious
beliefs and ignore the fact that they are from
various countries.
Religious beliefs often influence a country's
dominant political culture and the goals of the
government. In Canada, Christianity is the dominant
religion. Christian beliefs have had a large
part in shaping Canadian laws and the constitution.
Canada shares a bond with other countries that are
influenced by Christian beliefs.
Religion plays a greater role in some countries
than in Canada. In 1979, for example, a government
dedicated to ruling according to Islamic law
replaced Iran's authoritarian, secular government.
The religious leaders became the political leaders.
Islamic law became state law.
In some countries, religious beliefs contradict
the goals of the government. Anglican Archbishop
Desmond Tutu, for example, leads the international
protest against South Africa's apartheid policies.
Many Roman Catholic workers travel from North
America and Europe to Africa and South America
to care for victims of government neglect and
abuse, poverty, and civil war. Religious leaders
and their assistants are often harassed or arrested
for carrying out their work.
Religious leaders play a large role in publicizing
global issues. Members of religious groups
around the world learn about world problems
during religious services. Many are inspired to help
directly. Others appeal to their governments to
cooperate with other countries to address world
problems. The unity of all people regardless of
their nationality is central to all religions.
ER 12: International Non-Government Organizations	179
languages to keep members up-to-date on international
developments in their field.
International professional groups often have
members from nations that are political enemies.
Most members believe, however, that because of
their occupation they have more in common with
those in the organization than with their fellow
citizens. The political differences between governments
sometimes seem irrelevant.
International Sports
In October 1987, Iran and Iraq were in the eighth
year of their long and brutal war. At the same time, the Iranian and Iraqi volleyball teams were
competing at an international tournament in
Kuwait. When the game ended, the players shook
CHAPT
hands and hugged one another. An Iraqi sports
official presented an olive branch, the international
symbol of peace, to the Iranian team captain. The
touching display showed how international sports
can provide a way for people of different or even
warring countries to come together.
International sports organizations organize
competitions and world championships in nearly
every sport. Yachting, tennis, and soccer are
examples of international sports organizations.
For many years, the National Hockey League had
only players from Canada and the United States. It
now includes players from many countries. In
1989, NHL teams played pre-season exhibition
games in the Soviet Union and Soviet players
joined several NHL teams.
The most widely known of all international
sports organizations is the Olympics. The first
Olympic games were held in 776 BE near the town
The opening ceremonies at
the 1988 Calgary Winter
Olympics. The Games are
supposed to promote
peaceful competition and
international understanding
and cooperation.
ER 12: International Non-Government Organizations
Wicks' Outcast

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© Ben Wicks, distributed by The Southern Syndicate.
of Olympia in Greece. Governments had such
respect for the games that wars were postponed to
allow them to proceed. Under Roman occupation
in 394 AD, the games were ended. In 1896, a French
teacher named Baron Pierre de Coubertin revived
the games in an attempt to create more international
cooperation. Nine nations competed in the 1896
games in Athens. In the 1988 Olympics in Seoul,
over 100 nations competed.
Although de Coubertin had hoped that the
Olympics would transcend politics, they have
become very political. The 1936 Berlin games were
a showpiece for Nazism. At the 1972 Munich
games, the Palestine Liberation Organization killed
eleven Israeli athletes to publicize its cause. In
1980, Canada, the United States, and most Western
countries boycotted the Olympic games in Moscow
to protest the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
The Soviet Union and its allies responded by
boycotting the 1984 games in Los Angeles.
Despite the political intrusions, the spirit of
the Olympics and of all international sports
continues. The sports organizations continue to
give athletes and spectators from many nations the
chance to put aside national diffi
come together in peaceful athletic
Summary
International non-government or^
groups with members from two or
who interact and whose operation
direct control of governments. Thei
of international non-government
Some are more powerful than otF
important. They all bring people
countries together in some commo
As the number and size of thi
grow, the political borders that sep
may become less important. As rr
people from various countries in)
ments may find it increasingly dil
war. Perhaps through intemationa
ment organizations, international
have less to do with war, suspicion,
tion and more to do with peace, unde
compromise.
One day in June 1973, fifteen-year-old Rick Hansen and
were on their way home from a fishing trip. They hitched a rid
back of a pick-up truck. Moments later, the truck spun an corner and they were thrown out. Hansen heard and felt h|
break. Doctors told him that his spinal cord had been damad
was paralyzed from the waist down and would neva
again, j
Hansen had been a star athlete in school but his iaq
friends believed that his athletic days were over. For a
Hansen agreed and became understandably depressed.:
however, he regained his enthusiasm for life and his inl
sports. The wheelchair became a challenge and a toy. Will
the hospital, he delighted in making it turn and spin. He spoil
his plans with a zeal that surprised the medical staff but n who knew him well.
Once out of the hospital, Hansen returned to sch
renewed his interest in sports. In 1976, he helped form a wh
basketball team called the Vancouver Cable Cars. One ta
was Terry Fox. Hansen became the first paraplegic \^ from the University of British Columbia in Physical Eduo
entered wheelchair marathons and won nineteen inte
races. In 1982. he competed in the Pan-American Games i
and won nine gold medals. The next year, he and Wayn
tied as Canada's male athlete of the year.
Hansen grew frustrated with the way many people n
and other people with disabilities. He was disappointed inadequate funding that was given to spinal cord research, by his friend Terry Fox, he decided to raise money for i increase people's awareness of the potential of disabilities. He decided to wheel himself around the
Hansen's Man in Motion tour did not have a
beginning. Only three hundred people showed up at Vl
Oakridge Mall on 21 March 1985 to see him off. Then, hist crew misjudged an overpass and tore the roof racks from as they followed him from the parking lot. Police in manyj
states refused to give him an escort. Motorists honked a
and cursed him for slowing traffic. In France, vandals |
Spotlight: Rick Hansen (1957One
day in June 1973, fifteen-year-old Rick Hansen and a fr
were on their way home from a fishing trip. They hitched a ride i
back of a pick-up truck. Moments later, the truck spun aroiii
corner and they were thrown out. Hansen heard and ie]: his 1
break. Doctors told him that his spinal cord had been clan agec
was paralyzed from the waist down and would never
again.
Hansen had been a star athlete in school but his family
friends believed that his athletic days were over. Foi a w
Hansen agreed and became understandably depressed Sic
however, he regained his enthusiasm for life and his i'itere sports. The wheelchair became a challenge and a toy. Wnile st
the hospital, he delighted in making it turn and spin. He spoked
his plans with a zeal that surprised the medical staff but not tl who knew him well.
Once out of the hospital, Hansen returned to scnool
renewed his interest in sports. In 1976, he helped form a wneeic
basketball team called the Vancouver Cable Cars. One teamn
was Terry Fox. Hansen became the first paraplegic to gradi
from the University of British Columbia in Physical Education
entered wheelchair marathons and won nineteen internal! races. In 1982, he competed in the Pan-American Games: n He
and won nine gold medals. The next year, he and Wayn Gr
tied as Canada's male athlete of the year.
Hansen grew frustrated with the way many people tn atec
and other people with disabilities. He was disappointec wit
inadequate funding that was given to spinal cord research Ins{
by his friend Terry Fox, he decided to raise money for research
increase people's awareness of the potential of those
disabilities. He decided to wheel himself around the worid,
Hansen's Man in Motion tour did not have a spectac
beginning. Only three hundred people showed up at Vancoir
Oakridge Mall on 21 March 1985 to see him off. Then, his s:x-pe
crew misjudged an overpass and tore the roof racks from thei:
as they followed him from the parking lot. Police in many Amer
states refused to give him an escort. Motorists honked their I
and cursed him for slowing traffic. In France, vandals cestrc
UNIT 4: International Relations
some of his equipment. He was robbed in New York City and again
in New Zealand. He had 117 flat tires and wore out eleven pairs of
gl®ves. He also suffered from agonizing shoulder and wrist injuries.
Nonetheless, one stroke at a time, he pushed on.
As the tour progressed, more and more people began to notice
him. He was articulate and friendly with the media and with
spectators. The crowds that cheered him grew and the media began
publicizing his goals and his progress. Crowds of school children
lined his path in the Soviet Union. Photos of his ride along the Great
Wall of China appeared in newspapers around the world. Pope
John Paul II joined onlookers in Rome and offered his personal
encouragement.
Hansen marked the half-way point of the tour in Australia. At a
press conference, he said that he was very tired but still determined.
He encouraged the media to talk about his cause rather than just
him and his tour. And of course he was pleased that $800 000 had
been raised.
By August 1986, Hansen was back in Canada, in Newfoundland.
The tour raised over $1.5 million in Atlantic Canada. The
crowds grew larger and the press coverage became even more
extensive. He prepared for the last leg home to British Columbia.
Television cameras began to follow him and he gave interviews
while rolling. In Ottawa, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney donated
$1 million on behalf of Canadians. Thousands lined his route in
Ontario from Cornwall to Kenora and even more each time he
crossed a provincial border. At the British Columbia border,
Premier William Wander Zaim promised that his government would
match every dollar donated by the citizens of Hansen's home
province. More donations and letters of congratulation poured in
from around the world.
On 22 May 1987, Hansen wheeled his chair up the ramp to the
stage at the Oakridge Mall where the tour had begun. Over 7000
fans and dozens of reporters and television crews from many
countries were there to meet him. Hansen smiled the smile the world
had come to know. He said that he hoped people would remember
not him but the cause he represented.
The Man in Motion tour lasted twenty-six months and covered
thirty-four countries. Hansen travelled 40 073 kill, the circumference
of the earth. The tour raised $24 million for spinal cord research and
wheelchair sports organizations and events.
Hansen became a Canadian hero and an international
CHAPTER 12: International Non-Government Organizations
Rick Hansen, arriving at Toronto's
City Hall, is greeted
by a tremendous reception.

186	UNIT 4: International Reic
celebrity. People from many countries bought his autobiograL
He received thunderous applause when he carried the Olyra
torch in the opening ceremonies of the 1988 Calgary Winter Gem
In March 1988, Governor General Jeanne Sauve presented Hem
with the Order of Canada. He accepted a position with.
University of British Columbia and was appointed Commissi<
General for the Canadian pavilion at Expo 1990 in Australia.
itions
Rick Hansen is among the few individuals who have attracted 'rnational attention to a single cause. His tour created a
iporary international non-government charitable organization. It
. millions of people to focus their attention on something beyond
mselves and their country. He not only helped his cause but also ssted international cooperation and understanding.

(call
Describe some of Hansen's accomplishments
before beginning his tour.
Why did Hansen decide to undertake the Man
in Motion tour?
What were some of the problems he encountered
on his tour?
What did Hansen emphasize at the halfway
point and again at the conclusion of his
tour?
5. What has Hansen done since finishing his
tour?
Consider
1. Do you think people like Rick Hansen help
promote international cooperation and understanding?
Explain your answer.
2. Discuss what you could do as a class or as
individuals to promote international cooperation
and understanding.

CHAPTER 12: International Non-Government Organizations 187 '- ' '1
Case Study #4--McDonald's
For seventeen years. Ray Kroc was a travelling
sales representative for the Lily Paper Cup
Company. He became tired of working for others
and, risking his life savings, decided to form his
own company. His company, which sold sixspindled
milk shake makers, became very successful.
One day, he decided to visit a restaurant in San
Bemardino, California, that was using eight of his
machines. He discovered that the restaurant had no
tables. People came in, ordered from a limited
menu, and ate in their cars. Two brothers, Dick and
Mac McDonald, owned the restaurant, which they
called McDonald's. Kroc was impressed by the
restaurant's efficiency and obvious success.
At fifty-four. Ray Kroc decided to take
another gamble. He signed an agreement with the
McDonald brothers to open copies of their
restaurant in other places. The new restaurants
were franchises. An owner of a McDonald's
franchise owed a percentage of its profit to the
company. It cost (US)$950 to buy the first
McDonald's franchises.
Kroc made sure that he kept everything that
had made the original restaurant a success. The
menu was limited and the prices were low.
Restaurants had no pay phones, jukeboxes, or
vending machines because Kroc wanted to maintain
a family atmosphere. Furthermore, he
believed that owners would work harder if they did
Fig. 1 McDonald's 1955 Menu
Hamburger_____________ 15 cents
Cheeseburger____________ 19 cents
French Fries _____________ 10 cents
Milk Shakes_____________ 20 cents
Soft Drinks______________ 10 cents
Coffee_______________ Scents
188	UNIT 4: International Relations
Restaurants
not have the side income that these extra;
provide.
The new restaurants were an im
success. By 1960, 200 McDonald's franchis
spread throughout the United States. In 19(
became the primary owner of the corpor;
buying out the McDonald brothers for (
million.
As McDonald's grew, other compani
with it. The companies that supplied fc
other products to McDonald's were the
share its success. The Mary Arm Baki
example, was a small company when Kroi the contract to supply hamburger buns to I
aid's. Kroc wanted all buns to be the same
weight and to be packaged identically. The
standardized its operation to meet Kroc's d
and discovered that it made more money
than previously. In only three years, the M
Bakery had a huge plant. It used over 400 0
flour each month and produced 8000 I hour.
Those who financed McDonald's
money on their investment. For example,
Kroc needed money to expand. He borrov
million from three insurance compal
exchange for 22.5 per cent of McDonald'
The companies later sold their stock for |
million. Analysts have estimated that K
created more millionaires than anyone
history.
Kroc decided to expand into Canada in
was his first foreign venture. George Cohon
the rights to McDonald's for Ontario and 1
the country. He became very successi
inspired Kroc to expand into other mark(
In 1971, Kroc opened a McDonald's ii Few Japanese, however, ate in restaurants a