changes since last revision: August 1999: added clarifying remark to Bahamut
answer. October 1995: lengthened Bahamut answer; added a couple external links;
made changes for move to UNH.
The political organization of the region was basically a collection of
city-states. Sargon of Agade (2371-16 BC) united the regions of Sumer and Akkad.
His descendants eventually lost control of the empire due to pressures from the
Hurrians, the Hittites, and other invaders, not to mention internal pressures.
In the south Sumer again gained ascendancy, dominated by the city-state Ur.
Sumer then collapsed under the Amorites around 2000 BC. They established many
sub- kingdoms including Assyria and Babylon. Assyria attained a brief period of
dominance under Shamshi-Adad (1813-1781 BC) but was soon superseded by Babylon
under Hammurabi (1792-50BC) who established what once were thought to be the
first written law codes (more recent discoveries include law codes from a couple
centuries prior to Hammurabi). The first Babylonian dynasty collapsed in 1595BC
when the Hittites sacked its eponymous capital. Assyria had been taken over by
the Mitanni but established its independence in the mid 14th century BC. BC.
Under Tukulti-Ninurta I Assyria dominated the entire fertile crescent in the
late 13th century. By the time of Tiglath-Pileser I, about a century later it
had directed more of its attention westwards towards Palestine and lost control
of Babylon and the south. Slowly Assyria began to expand again, reaching its
apex between 750 and 650 BC under the rulers Tiglath-Pileser III, Sargon II,
Senacherib, and Ashuribanipal(668-627 BC). The empire collapsed from invaders
with Nineveh falling to Nabopalasar of Babylon in 612 BC and the empire dying in
605 BC. Meanwhile, Babylon had been reasserting itself. Under Nebuchadnezzar
Babylon expanded westward, taking Jerusalem in 586 BC. Babylon fell in the
mid-540's to Cyrus the Persian whose empire lasted until the late 300's BC when
Alexander of Macedon established his empire and renamed the area "Mesopotamia".
(See also Shawn Bayern's History Babylonia)
- Ellil (Enlil) - Sumerian for "wind/storm-god".
- Initially the leader of the pantheon, he has since relinquished his spot
to Anu.
Possible slayer of Enmesharra
and avenger of his father Anu. His role in this was upplanted by Marduk
by the Babylonians. He is a short-tempered god who was responsible for the
great flood. He is the creator of mankind. He is thought to favor and help
those in need. He guards the "tablets of destiny", which allow him to
determines the fate of all things animate or inanimate. They was once stolen
from him by a Zu, a storm- bird (a bird with some human qualities). They were
recovered and Zu faced judgment by Ellil. His consort is Ninlil,
his chief-minister is Nusku.
He was also god of the lands and of the earth. He is a "King of the Anunnaki".
He was their counselor warrior. He and his people receive the earth in
'Atrahasis'. His temple is Duranki.
When the Igigi rebelled against him, and surrounded his house and called
for Anu. After man was created in response to the Igigi's grievances, he grew
weary of their noise and released several disasters upon them, after each one,
man recovered and then he released a new one. The disasters included disease,
flood, drought, and the great flood. He appointed Humbaba
to guard the cedar forest and terrify mankind. He decreed that Enkidu
must die for the slaying of the Bull of Heaven and Humbaba. He does not answer
Gilgamesh's
plea to restore Enkidu to life. He found a throne for Etana to
rule from in Kish. He appointed Anzu as
the guardian of his bath chamber, but while bathing, Anzu stole from him the
Tablet of Destinies, and his Ellil-power. Ninurta,
with Ea's advise
and Belet-ili's
urgings slew Anzu and recovered the Tablet of Destinies. (See also the Hittite
Ellil)
Symbol:
Seven small circles representing the Pleiades.
Sacred number:
50
Astrological region: north of "the way of Anu" ie. 12 degrees north of
the equator.
- Ea (Enki,
Nudimmud)
- - god of the waters. He is in charge of the bolt which bars the sea. He
knows everything. He is the "Lord of Wisdom" and "Lord of Incantations". When
he speaks, of a thing, it will be made. He is the son of Anu, but
sometimes he is the son of Anshar.
Dumkina
is his consort. He created Zaltu as
a complement to Ishtar.
He discovered the plot of Apsu and
Mummu,
put Apsu under a sleeping spell, and slew him and put Mummu into a daze, tied
him up, and slew him. He then named his quarters Apsu, the underworld ocean
that supports the world. He and Damkina produced Bel and Marduk.
(Bel is likely to be another name for Marduk.)
He learned that Tiamat
was planning a war of revenge against the gods. His father Anshar tries to
spur him into making the first attack against Tiamat, but Ea rebuffs him. When
Anu's peace mission fails, he urges Marduk into action.
He suggests the method of creating man, in response to the heavy workload
of the Igigi. As mankind's patron, he is the instructor of all crafts,
writing, building, farming, and magic. He advises mankind when other gods
would do them harm. He granted Adapa
understanding, to teach mankind. When Adapa used this knowledge to break the
wing of the South Wind, he cursed him and told him to complain of Dumuzi
and Gizzida's
absence to Anu. While in Anu's court, he advises Adapa not to eat the bread of
eternal life (lest he forfeit his life on earth). He refuses to flood mankind
for Ellil.
Eventually he accedes, but only after advising Atrahasis
to build a boat in which to weather the flood.
He tells Nergal
to allow Enkidu's
spirit to visit with Gilgamesh.
When Ea is informed of Ishtar's
imprisonment in the Underworld, he creates 'His appearance is bright' to stand
at Ereshkigal's
gate and mellow her mood and have her swear an oath by the great gods. He
instructs Nergal on how to build the gift throne for Ereshkigal, and hides him
with spring water to hide him from Namtar
after he returned from the underworld.
When Anu and the gods could not locate a volunteer to kill Anzu, he
told the Igiggi that he would pick one. He instructs Belet-ili/Mami to
send Ninurta
to slay Anzu and, through Sharur
advises Ninurta on how to defeat the creature. (See also the Canaanite Heyan
aka Kothar-u-Khasis
and the Hittite Ayas)
Symbol:
Ram's head; goat-fish (a goat's head on a fish's body)
Sacred number:
40
Astrological region: 12 degrees south in the sky (includes Pisces and
Aquarius)
- Mummu
- - the craftsman god. He is attendant to Ea and Apsu's
vizier. He is very fond of Apsu and colludes with him to disperse the younger
gods when they disturb Tiamat,
even after Tiamat rejects the plan. Ea found out about his plan, enspelled him
and tied him up.
- Qingu
- - Tiamat's
battle leader. He is promoted and enhanced to a leading position from among
the ranks. Tiamat places the Tablet of Destinies into his possession, giving
him the Anu-power,
such that his word is law and effects reality. He gives his army
fire-quenching breath and paralyzing venom. His battle strategy initially
confuses Marduk.
He is defeated by Marduk and counted among the dead gods.
- Sin (Nannar)
- - moon god, son of Enlil.
He has a beard of Lapis Lazuli and rides a winged bull. His consort is Ningal.
He is the father of Shamash.
He does not answer Gilgamesh's
plea to restore Enkidu
to life.
Symbol: Crescent Sacred number: 30 Sphere of influence: the moon,
calendars, vegetation, cattle fertility
- Ningal
- - the consort of Sin, the
mother of Shamash
- Ishtar (Ishhara, Irnini, Inanna)
-
| She is Anu's
second consort, daughter of Anu
and Antum,
(sometimes daughter of Sin),
and sometimes the sister of Ereshkigal.
She is the goddess of love, procreation, and war. She is armed with a
quiver and bow. Her temples have special prostitutes of both genders.
She is often accompanied by a lion, and sometimes rides it. The Eanna in
Uruk is dedicated both to her and Anu. As Irnini, she has a parakku
(throne-base) at the cedar mountain. She loved Tammuz
in her youth, although he spends half the year in the nether world
wailing. She loved a lion, a stallion, a shepherd, all of whom she
required great sacrifice from and abandoned. She loved Ishullanu, a
gardener who offered her fruit, but was taken aback when she revealed
herself to him, so she turned him into a frog.
|
(Image from the Oriental Institute at U.
Chicago) |
After Gilgamesh
cleans himself up, following his defeat of Humbaba,
she asks him to be her lover and husband, and offers him many gifts and the
homage of earthly rulers and kingdoms. She is rejected, both because of her
godly nature, and as a fair-weather lover. Ishtar asks Anu to send the Bull of
Heaven to kill Gilgamesh, and he agrees.
She determines to go to the Underworld. She threatened to smash the gate
and raise the dead so that they would eat and outnumber the living unless the
gatekeeper would open it for her. She holds the great keppu-toy (a whipping
top). She is allowed in by the gate keeper, who takes her through seven gates
to Ereshkigal's
realm. By Ereshkigal's rites, she is stripped of items of clothing as she
passes through each of the gates: first her crown, then her earrings, then her
necklace, then her tudditu (breast pins), then her belt of birthstones, then
her wrist and ankle bangles, and finally her garment. While in the underworld,
no creatures engaged in acts of procreation. She was kept in Egalgina and
brought forth by Namtar
after being sprinkled with the water of life, and after 'His appearance is
bright' has been cursed. She is led back out through the gates, given back her
accouterments, and released in exchange for Dumuzi
(Tammuz). (See also the Hittite Shaushka
and the Canaanite Astarte
and Anat
Symbol: an eight or sixteen-pointed star Sacred number: 15 Astrological
region: Dibalt (Venus) and the Bowstar (Sirius) Sacred animal: lion, (dragon)
- Siduri
- - the barmaid, a manifestation of Ishtar
who dwells at the lip of the sea, beyond which is the Land of Life, where Utnapishtim
lives. She speaks with Gilgamesh.
She wears a veil.
- Shamash (Babbar, Utu)
- - the sun god, the son of Sin and Ningal.
He rises from the mountains with rays out of his shoulders. He enters and
exits the underworld through a set of gates in the mountain (exits from Mt.
Mashu, "Gilgamesh IX ii") guarded by scorpion-people. He travels both on foot
and in a chariot, pulled by fiery mules. He upholds truth, and justice. He is
a lawgiver and informs oracles. Nergal
is a corrupt aspect of his nature.
He loves Gilgamesh,
hates evil and instigates Gilgamesh's quest against Humbaba,
guiding him and receiving prayers from him along the way. He tries to
intercede to Ellil on
Enkidu's
behalf, but is unsuccessful. He rebukes Enkidu for cursing the Stalker and the
temple prostitute for bringing him out of the wild.
In Kish, the eagle and the serpent swore an oath to Shamash that they would
not overstep the limits of Shamash. The eagle broke the oath and ate the eggs
of the serpent. Shamash, 'whose net is as wide as earth', told the serpent how
to serve the eagle justice. The serpent lured the eagle with a bull carcass
and captured him. The eagle requested to be spared and the serpent refused,
saying that Shamash's punishment would fall on him if he did not carry it out.
He cut the eagle's wings and left him to die in a pit. The eagle prayed to
Shamash for mercy, and Shamash refused to help personally, but sent Etana to
help the eagle. He agreed to help Etana's infertility problem if Etana would
help the eagle. See also the Hittite Sun-god and
the Canaanite Shapshu.
Symbol: Solar disk with a four point star inside with rays coming from
between the points. A winged disk.
Sacred Number: 20
- Aia
- - Shamash's
consort
- Kakka
- Anshar
and Anu's
vizier, who is sent to Kurnugi to deliver Ereshkigal
the message that Anu wishes to deliver a gift to her via one of her
messengers. Anshar sends him to round up Lahmu
and Lahamu
to send off Marduk
for his battle with Tiamat
and rally them to his side.
- Ninlil
- Ellil's
consort. (see also Sumerian
Ninlil.)
- Nusku
- the god of fire and Ellil's
vizier.
- Gerra(Gibil)
- - the god of fire, Anunitu (Antu)'s
son. He despairs and will not attack Anzu
after Anzu has stolen the Tablet of Destinies from Ellil.
- Ishum (Hendursanga - 'lofty mace')
- - He is the god of fire, and is adept at using weapons. He lights the way
in front of Erra and
the Sebitti. He advises Erra against attacking Marduk or his people in
Babylon. When Erra takes Marduk's
seat, Ishum persuades him against destroying Babylon, finally appeasing him by
promising that the other gods would acknowledge themselves as his servants.
- Kalkal
- - Ellil's
doorkeeper in Nippur.
- Dumkina
- - Ea's lover,
mother of Bel and Marduk
(note Bel is likely to be another title for Marduk).
- Nash (Nanshe)
- - one of "the pure goddesses", Ea's
daughter. Her cult center is Sirara near Lagash.
- Zaltu
- - "strife", goddess created by Ea to
complement Ishtar.
- Ninurta (shares some characteristics with Ningrisu)
- - Chamberlain of the Anunnaki, the war god, the champion of the land. He
is the child of Ellil
and Mami. He
was born in Ekur, Ellil's temple in Ekur. He is responsible for some small
scale irrigation. He has a bow and arrow, sometimes they are poisoned. He also
carries the mace, Sharur, which can act as a messenger between Ninurta and
other beings (notably Ea). He can
marshal the Seven of Battle, who can generate whirlwinds.
He bound the Mountain of Stones in his fury, conquered the Anzu with
his weapon and slew the bull-man inside the Sea. (Dalley p. 204).
After the Tablet of Destinies was stolen, Belit-ili,
at Ea's advice, instructed him to kill Anzu. Initially his assault was futile,
but Sharur relayed advise from Ea to him, which, when it was carried out
allowed him to slay Anzu in a great onslaught. He recovered the Tablet of
Destinies for Ellil. Nissaba
performs a purification ceremony on him and he receives the following new
names and shrines: Duku - 'holy mound' in Sumerian, Hurabtil - an Elamite god,
Shushinak - patron god of the Elamite city Susa, Lord of the Secret, Pabilsag
- god of the antediluvian city Larak, Nin-Azu - god of Eshunna, Ishtaran - god
of Der, Zababa -warrior god of Kish, Lugalbanda
- Gilgamesh's
father, Lugal-Marada - patron god of Marad, Warrior Tishpak - similar to Nin-
Azu, Warrior of Uruk, Lord of the Boundary-Arrow, Panigara - a warrior god,
and Papsukkal - vizier of the great gods.
- Ninsun
- - 'the great wild cow', the great queen, Gilgamesh's
mother and Lugalbanda's
mate. She is wise, 'knows everything' and interprets Gilgamesh's dreams. She
offers incense and drink to Shamash
and questions his decision to send Gilgamesh against Humbaba.
When doing so, she wears a circlet on her head and an ornament on her breast.
She adopts Enkidu
prior to the quest against Humbaba.
- Marduk
- - son of Ea and Dumkina.
He supplants the other Babylonian deities to become the central figure of
their pantheon. He is a "King of the Igigi" He often works with and asks
questions of his father. He has fifty names many of which are those of other
deities whose attributes he usurped. He was of proud form and piercing stare,
born mature, powerful, and perfect and superior. He has four eyes, four ears,
and emits fire from his mouth when he speaks. He is also gifted in magic.
Anu
gave him the four winds to play with. When Anu's peace mission to Tiamat
fails, Ea urges him into action. He goes before Anshar
and the divine assembly and declares that he will defeat Tiamat and lay her
head at his feet, but that the assembly must promise that he should be the one
to fix fates and more or less assume the role of the leader of the pantheon.
Anshar, Lahamu, and Anu find him a shrine and Anu instills upon him the
Anu-power in which, his word decrees fate. He is proclaimed king and invested
with the scepter, throne, and staff-of- office. He is given an unfaceable
weapon, the flood-weapon. He takes a bow and arrow and mace. He puts lightning
in front of him, marshals his winds, makes a net to encircle Tiamat, fills his
body with flame. He rides his storm-chariot driven by Slayer, Pitiless, Racer,
and Flyer, poison-toothed, tireless steeds. He had a spell on his lips and an
anti- toxin in his hand. He led the gods to battle. (P.251-252 Dalley) Qingu's
strategy confused him. Tiamat tried to enspell him and wheedled at him. Marduk
reproaches her and calls her out for single combat. She looses her temper and
they fight. He unleashes his weapons at her, distended her body with winds,
shot her in the belly with an arrow, split her in two and slit her heart. He
defeats the rest of her forces and retrieves the Tablet of Destinies.
He smashed Tiamat's skull to herald her death. He made half of her skin the
roof of the sky. He leveled Apsu, measured it and established numerous shrines
for many of the gods. He set up stands for the gods, constructed the heavens
and regulated the year, giving Shamash some dominion over the months and the
year. He made the Tigris and Euphrates rivers from Tiamat's eyes and made
mountains from her udders. He smashed the weapons of Tiamat's army and put
images of them at the gates to the underworld. He set up his temple at
Esharra. and his seat in Babylon. The gods honored him as king. He put blood
and bones together as and made early man to bear the work of the gods, as in
Atrahasis. For Qingu's part in the war he was made to provide the blood for
the creation of man. He divided the Anunnaki and placed 300 to guard the sky,
and six hundred to dwell in heaven and earth. He had them create Babylon
building the Esagalia temple and a high ziggurat. Anshar gave him many new
names: 1. Asarluhi, 2. Marduk, 3. The Son, The Majesty of the Gods, 4.
Marukka, 5. Mershakushu, 6. Lugal-dimmer-ankia (King of heaven and earth), 7.
Bel, 8. Nari-lugal-dimmer-ankia, 9. Asarluhi, 10. Namtila, 11. Namru, 12.
'Asare, 13. Asar-alim, 14. Asar-alim-nuna, 15. Tutu, 16. Zi-ukkina, 17. Ziku,
18. Agaku, 19. Shazu, 20. Zisi, 21. Suhrim, 22. Suhgurim, 23. Zahrim, 24.
Zahgurim, 25. Enbilulu, 26. Epadun, 27. Gugal, 28. Hegal, 29. Sirsir, 30.
Malah, 31. Gil, 32. Gilima, 33. Agilima, 34. Zulum, 35. Mummu, 36. Zulum-ummu,
37. Gizh- numun-ab, 38. Lugal-ab-dubur, 39. Pagal-guena, 40. Lugal-Durmah, 41.
Aranuna, 42. Dumu-duku, 43. Lugal-duku, 44. Lugal-shuanna, 45. Iruga, 46.
Irqingu, 47. Kinma, 48. Kinma, 49. E-sizkur, 50. Addu, 51. Asharu, 52. Neberu,
53. Enkukur. He becomes a firm lawgiver and judge who, when angered is not
stoppable. Later he becomes somewhat negligent and Erra
challenges him by preparing to attack his people in Babylon. He responds to
the challenge by saying that he already killed most of the people in the flood
and would not do so again. He also states that no- one would be in control of
things if he got off of his throne to work up a flood, to which Erra
volunteers to run things from Marduk's throne.
- Bel (Canaanite Baal)
- Cleverest of the clever and sage of the gods, he is the child of Ea and Dumkina.
This name (meaning 'lord') is most likely referring to Marduk.
- Ashur (A-sir, Arusar, A-shar, Assur)
- god of Assyria and war. He is a "King of the Igigi"
Symbol: winged disk enclosing upper body, while he shoots an arrow.
- Shullat
- - Shamash's
servant.
- Papsukkal
- - vizier of the Great Gods, son of Sin. While
Ishtar
was in the Underworld, he became gloomy and informed Sin and Ea of this
plight.
- Hanish
- - the weather god's servant.
- Adad (the Canaanite Hadad, the
Hurrian Teshub,
the Canaanite/Egyptian Resheph,
Rimmon)
- a storm god, Anu's son.
He holds a lightning bolt in his right hand and an axe in his left. He is
partially responsible for the flood. He despairs and will not attack Anzu
after Anzu has stolen the Tablet of Destinies from Ellil.
Sacred
number: 6
Sacred animal: Bull
- Shara
- - Anu and Ishtar's
son. He despairs and will not attack Anzu
after Anzu has stolen the Tablet of Destinies from Ellil.
- Nin-ildu
- - the carpenter god. He carries the pure axe of the sun.
- Gushkin-banda
- - creator of god and man, goldsmith god.
- Nin-agal
- - 'lord strong-arm' patron god of smiths. He chews copper and makes tools.
- Ereshkigal (Allatu)
- - the supreme goddess of the underworld. Nergal
is her consort. She is often considered Ishtar's
sister. When angered, her face grows livid and her lips grow black.
She doesn't know why Ishtar would visit her, but she allows her in,
according to the ancient rites. She instructs Namtar
to release his diseases upon Ishtar. When 'His appearance is bright' tries to
get her to swear an oath, she curses him. She has Namtar release Ishtar in
exchange for Dumuzi.
Anu
sends Kakka to
her with a message and then sends Nergal to give her a throne upon which she
is to sit and give judgment. She offers Nergal food, drink, a foot bath, and
entices him with her body. Eventually he succumbs and they sleep with each
other for seven days. She is enraged when he wishes to leave. She sends Namtar
to heaven to request that Anu, Ellil,
and Ea
send Nergal to her as one of the few favors she has ever had. If they do not,
she will raise the dead and they will eat and outnumber the living. Nergal is
brought back. In some versions of the myth, Nergal takes control of Namtar's
attendant demons and grabs Ereshkigal by the hair. In this position she
proposes marriage to him. In both versions they are married. (See also Sumerian Ereshkigal
and the Hittite Lelwanis)
- Belit-tseri
- tablet-scribe of the underworld. She kneels before Ereshkigal.
- Namtar(a)
- - the Fate-Cutter, Ereshkigal's
messenger and vizier, the herald of death. He commands sixty diseases, which
are grouped by the part of the body which they affect. Offerings to him may
stave off diseases. He takes Ishtar
back out of the Underworld at Ereshkigal's command. He acts as her messenger
to Anu.
- Sumuqan
- - the cattle god, he resides in the underworld, in Ereshkigal's
court.
- Nergal (Erragal, Erra, Engidudu
- - 'lord who prowls by night') -, the Unsparing, god of the underworld,
husband of Ereshkigal,
lover of Mami. As
Erra he is a hunter god, a god of war and plague. He is submissive to Ea. He can
open the doorposts to the underworld to allow the passage of a soul.
He achieved his post by refusing to stand before an address of Namtar. When
Ereshkigal called him to be punished, he dragged her off of her throne by the
hair, and threatened to decapitate her. She offered him the position as her
consort and he accepted.
He is an evil aspect of Shamash.
He allows Enkidu's
spirit to visit Gilgamesh
at the behest of Ea. He is sometimes the son of Ea. Prior to his first journey
to the underworld, he builds a chair of fine wood under Ea's instruction to
give to Ereshkigal as a gift from Anu. He is
advised not to take part of the food, drink and entertainment offered there.
He is tempted by Ereshkigal and eventually succumbs, sleeping with her for
seven days. He then takes his leave, angering her. The gatekeeper lets him out
and he climbs the stairway to heaven. He hides from Namtar
in heaven, but is discovered and returns to the underworld to marry
Ereshkigal. In some versions, on the way back to the Underworld, he seizes
control of Namtar's attendant demons and grabs Ereshkigal by the hair. In this
position she offers marriage.
He commands the Sebitti, seven warriors who are also the Pleadies, they aid
in his killing of noisy, over-populous people and animals. He rallies them
when he feels the urge for war, and calls Ishum to
light the way. They prefer to be used in war instead of waiting while Erra
kills by disease.
He regards Marduk
as having become negligent and prepares to attack his people in Babylon. He
challenges Marduk in Esagila in Shuanna/Babylon. Marduk responds that he
already killed most of the people in the flood and would not do so again. He
also states that he could not run the flood without getting off of his throne
and letting control slip. Erra volunteers to take his seat and control things.
Marduk takes his vacation and Erra sets about trying to destroy Babylon. Ishum
intervenes on Babylon's behalf and persuades Erra to stop, but not before he
promises that the other gods will acknowledge themselves as Erra's servants.
(See also Sumerian
Nergal
- Irra
- - plague god, underling of Nergal
- Enmesharra
- - Underworld god
- Lamashtu
- - a dread female demon also known as 'she who erases'.
- Nabu
- - god of writing and wisdom
- Nedu
- - the guardian of the first gate of the underworld. (Dalley p. 175,
"Nergal and Ereshkigal"). Also known as Neti to the
Sumerians.
- Ningizzia
- - a guardian of the gate of heaven; a god of the underworld.
- Tammuz (Dumuzi,
Adonis)
- the brother and spouse to Ishtar,
or the lover of her youth. He is a vegetation god. He went into the underworld
and was recovered through the intervention of Ishtar. He is sometimes the
guardian of heaven's gates and sometimes a god of the underworld. He is
friends with Ningizzia.
He is exchanged for Ishtar in the Underworld. He guards the Gate of Anu with
Gizzida.
- Belili (Geshtinanna)
- - Tammuz/Dumuzi's
sister, 'the one who always weeps', the wife of Ningishzida.
- Gizzida (Gishzida)
- - son of Ninazu,
consort of Belili,
doorkeeper of Anu.
- Nissaba (Nisaba)
- - cereal grain harvest goddess. Her breast nourishes the fields. Her womb
gives birth to the vegetation and grain. She has abundant locks of hair. She
is also a goddess of writing and learned knowledge. She performs the
purification ceremony on Ninurta
after he has slain Anzu and
is given his additional names and shrines.
- Dagan (Ugaritic for 'grain')
- - chthonic god of fertility and of the Underworld. He is paired with Anu as one
who acknowledges directives and courses of action put forth in front of the
assembly of the gods. (See also the Canaanite Dagon)
- Birdu
- - (means 'pimple') an underworld god. Ellil
used him as a messenger to Ninurta
- Sharru
- - god of submission
- Urshambi
- - boatman to Utnapishtim
- Ennugi
- - canal- controller of the Anunnaki.
- Geshtu-e
- - 'ear', god whose blood and intelligence are used by Mami to
create man.
- Adapa (Uan)
- - the first of the seven antediluvian sages who were sent by Ea to
deliver the arts of civilization to mankind. He was from Eridu. He offered
food an water to the gods in Eridu. He went out to catch fish for the temple
of Ea and was caught in a storm. He broke the South Wind's wing and was called
to be punished. Ea advised him to say that he behaved that way on account of
Dumuzi's
and Gizzida's
absence from the country. Those gods, who tended Anu's
gate, spoke in his favor to Anu. He was offered the bread and water of eternal
life, but Ea advised against his taking it, lest he end his life on earth.
- Atrahasis and Ut-napishtim,
- Like the Sumerian Ziusudra (the
Xisuthros of Berossus) or Noah from the Pentateuch, were the long-lived
survivors of the great flood which wiped out the rest of humanity. In
Atrahasis' case, Ellil
had grown tired of the noise that the mass of humanity was making, and after a
series of disasters failed to eliminate the problem, he had Enki
release the floodgates to drown them out. Since Enki had a hand in creating
man, he wanted to preserve his creation, warned Atrahasis, and had him build a
boat, with which he weathered the flood. He also had kept his ear open to Enki
during the previous disasters and had been able to listen to Enki's advice on
how to avoid their full effects by making the appropriate offerings to the
appropriate deities. He lived hundreds of years prior to the flood, while
Utnapishtim lives forever after the flood.
Utnapishtim of Shuruppak was the son of Ubaratutu.
His flood has no reason behind it save the stirrings of the hearts of the
Gods. As with Atrahasis, Utnapishtim is warned to build an ark by Ea. He is
also told to abandon riches and possessions and seek life and to tell the city
elders that he is hated by Enlil
and would go to the watery Abyss to live with Ea via the ark. He loads gold,
silver, and the seed of all living creatures into the ark and all of his
craftsmen's children as well. After Ea advises Enlil on better means to
control the human population, (predators, famine, and plague), Enlil makes
Utnapishtim and his wife immortal, like the gods.
- Lugalbanda
- - a warrior-king and, with Ninsun,
the progenitor of Gilgamesh.
He is worshipped, being Gilgamesh's ancestor, by Gilgamesh as a god.
- Gilgamesh (possibly Bilgamesh) and Enkidu
- The son of the warrior-king Lugalbanda
and the wise goddess Ninsun,
Gilgamesh built the walls of the city Uruk, and the Eanna (house of An) temple
complex there, dedicated to Ishtar.
He is two-thirds divine and one-third human. He is tall and a peerless
warrior. He is the king and shepherd of the people of Uruk, but he was very
wild, which upset his people, so they called out to Anu. Anu
told Aruru to
make a peer for Gilgamesh, so that they could fight and be kept occupied, so
she created the wild-man Enkidu. Enkidu terrorizes the countryside, and a
Stalker, advised by his father, informs Gilgamesh. They bring a love-
priestess to bait Enkidu. She sleeps with him, and educates him about
civilization, Gilgamesh and the city. Gilgamesh dreams about Enkidu and is
anxious to meet him. Enkidu comes into the city Gilgamesh is on his way to
deflower the brides in the city's "bride-house" and the two fight. They are
evenly matched and become friends.
Gilgamesh decides to strengthen his reputation by taking on Humbaba,
Enlil's
guardian of the forest. Enkidu accompanies Gilgamesh and they spend much time
in preparation. Eventually they find the monster and defeat him.
Ishtar offers to become Gilgamesh's lover, but Gilgamesh insults her,
saying that she has had many lovers and has not been faithful to them. Ishtar
asks Anu to send the Bull of
Heaven to punish Gilgamesh, and he does. Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeat the
creature, but Enkidu falls ill and dies, presumably because the gods are
unhappy that he helped kill Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven.
Gilgamesh morns Enkidu and decides to visit Utnapishtim,
the only human who does not die. He goes to the mountains of Mashu and passes
by the guardian scorpion-demons into the darkness. It becomes light as he
enters the Garden of the Gods and he finds Siduri
the Barmaid, to whom he relates his quest. She sends him to cross the waters
of death and he confronts the boatman, Urshanabi. They cross and Gilgamesh
speaks with Utnapishtim. Utnapishtim recounts the tale of the flood and
challenges Gilgamesh to remain awake for six days and seven nights. He fails,
but Utnapishtim's wife urges him to reveal to Gilgamesh a rejuvinative plant.
Gilgamesh takes it, but looses it to a serpent before returning to Uruk.
Another tablet of the Babylonian Gilgamesh story exists, which is similar
to the Sumerian
version of the tale. Enkidu volunteers to enter the underworld to recover
Gilgamesh's pukku and mikku (drum and throwing stick). Gilgamesh warns him of
the proper etiquette for the underworld, lest Enkidu be kept there. Enkidu
prepares to enter the underworld, and is dressed, scented and bade good-bye.
The Earth seizes him and Gilgamesh weeps. He pleads for Enkidu's sake to
Enlil, Sin, and
finally to Ea. Ea
tells Nergal
to let Enkidu's ghost escape the underworld and tell Gilgamesh about it. He
tells Gilgamesh of the dead which he has seen there, of those who are cared
for and those who aren't, indicating the sort of judgment and ritual
associated with the afterlife and death.
- Etana
- - the human taken to the sky by an eagle. He was the king of Kish. Ishtar
and the Igigi searched for a king for Kish. Ellil
found a throne for Etana and they declared him the king. He was pious an
continued to pray to Shamash,
yet he had no son. Shamash told him to where to find the eagle with the cut
wings, who would find for him the plant of birth. He found the eagle, fed it,
and taught it to fly again. Not being able to find the plant, the eagle had
Etana mount on his back and they journeyed to Ishtar, mistress of birth. On
flying up to heaven, Etana grew scared at the height and went down. Then after
some encouraging dreams tried to ascend to heaven on the eagle again. They
succeeded. Etana had a son, Balih.
- Humbaba (Huwawa)
- - this monster was appointed by Ellil to
guard the cedar forest, which is in fact one large tree, the home of the gods,
and terrify mankind. 'His shout is the storm-flood, his mouth, fire, his
breath is death.' (Gardner & Maier p. 105) He has seven cloaks with which
to arm himself. There is a gate and a path in the cedar mountain for Humbaba
to walk on. Gilgamesh
and Enkidu attack. Humbaba pleads for mercy, Enkidu argues against mercy, and
Enkidu and Gilgamesh decapitate him. See also the Sumerian Huwawa.
- The Bull of Heaven
- - this creature was created by Anu to
kill Gilgamesh
at Ishtar's
behest. At its snorting, a hole opened up and 200 men fell into it. When it
fights Enkidu and Gilgamesh, it throws spittle and excrement at them. It is
killed and set as an offering to Shamash.
- Anzu
- - a demonic being with lion paws and face and eagle talons and wings. It
was born on the mountain Hehe. Its beak is like a saw, its hide as eleven
coats of mail. It was very powerful. Ellil
appointed him to guard his bath chamber. He envied the Ellil-power inherent in
Ellil's Tablet of Destinies and stole it while Ellil was bathing. With the
Tablet of Destinies, anything he puts into words becomes reality. He takes
advandtage of this by causing Ninurta's
arrows to never reach their target. However, once Ea's advice
reached Ninurta, Anzu was slain by the hero's onslaught.
- aqrabuamelu (girtablilu)
- - scorpion-man, the guardians of the gates of the underworld. Their
"terror is awesome" and their "glance is death". They guard the passage of Shamash.
They appraise Gilgamesh
and speak with him.
Definitions:As for the underworld Kurnugi (Sumerian for 'land of no return'). It is
presided over by Ereshkigal
and Nergal.
Within the house of Irkalla (Nergal), the house of darkness, the house of Ashes,
no one ever exits. "They live on dust, their food is mud; their clothes are like
birds' clothes, a garment of wings, and they see no light, living in blackness."
It is full of dust and mighty kings serve others food. In Ereshkigal's court,
heroes and priests reside, as well as Sumuqan
and Belit-tseri.
The scorpion-people guard the gates in the mountain to the underworld which Shamash
uses to enter and exit. There are seven gates, through which one must pass. At
each gate, an adornment or article of clothing must be removed. The gates
(gatekeepers?) are named: Nedu,
(En)kishar, Endashurimma, (E)nuralla, Endukuga/Nerubanda, Endushuba/Eundukuga,
and Ennugigi. Beyond the gates are twelve double doors, wherein it is dark. Siduri
waits there by the waters of death, beyond which, is the Land of the Living,
where Utnapishtim
and his wife dwell. Shamash and Utnapishtim's boatman, Urshanbi, can cross the
waters. Egalginga, the everlasting palace, is a place where Ishtar
was held.
[Note: Sykes's use of the phrase "Islamic myth" is misleading as this bit of
cosmology is not considered Islamic doctrine. Bahamut is pre-Islamic, most
likely Arabic. I don't have a second source for Kujara.]
Behemoth then, is usually the male counterpart to Leviathan, and is a great
beast that roams on land. He is sometimes equated with a hippopotamus, and is
alternately listed in the Old Testament as a creature on the side of God and as
one over whom God has or will triumph over.
(Image from the Oriental Institute at U.
Chicago)